Topic is about:
To identify specific character traits related to the occupation that may contribute to the underrepresentation of women in law enforcement is particularly relevant, given the slow growth of female officers in this field. However, my plan to use previous studies on police personality and current issues affecting law enforcement is a good starting point for my research.
What qualitative components are incorporated in your study?
On qualitative research designs describe what, if any, qualitative components will be included in your study.
Qualitative Research Designs
In this chapter, we continue the discussion of methods of inquiry from Chapter 3; however, in this chapter we guide you through qualitative and mixed methods research designs. Just as quantitative research begins with basic human observation and curiosity, qualitative research does also. The science of qualitative research seeks to have the researcher look deeply into the world of individuals and phenomena.
Your dissertation, as a product of qualitative research, will likely be based on small nonrandom samples, or it may relate to multiple concepts, phenomena, or theories, or it may yield theory. Basic factual information or uniconceptual research in qualitative designs report information on one concept or phenomenon and does not attempt to make broader commentaries on the data. It is confined to one dimension and the small sample. It may be applied to similar groups in similar situations. Qualitative research can become more complex as the researcher uses methods of inquiry that promote cross-analyses or comparisons of data. Theory development, grounded theory, is often the most difficult, but most rewarding outcomes of the methodological techniques.
Just as in quantitative research, also in qualitative research, you must ask yourself: what is my intent or purpose of the research? Second, you must ask: what are my research questions? Again, these initial components will drive the method you select. If you conclude that you need to go obtain a deeper understanding of the topic, you will select qualitative methodology. Ultimately, you may decide that a mixed methods approach, using both quantitative and qualitative analyses, is the best method of inquiry for your dissertation. In this chapter, we provide an overview of each of the data analysis techniques or inquiry methods you could use if your questions or purpose necessitate a qualitative approach. Certainly, this chapter is not all inclusive, and we know that you will want to investigate more fully other options on your own once you settle on a specific method of inquiry. You will need to consult qualitative research methods textbooks and review your proposed methodology with your dissertation advisor. You must be thoroughly familiar with your method of qualitative inquiry.
Your research design or method of inquiry for qualitative will likely fall into one of four major categories of research: (a) phenomenological research, (b) case study research, (c) ethnographic research, and (d) grounded theory research. In addition to providing you with a brief overview of each category, we also provide examples of research purposes or questions that would justify a specific type of qualitative research design or method of inquiry. We also give several other types of research in qualitative inquiry. In a final section of this chapter, we discuss mixed methods research and provide some examples of it.
According to Creswell (2007),
A qualitative study is defined as an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or human problem. The researcher builds a complex, holistic picture, analyzes words, reports detailed views of informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting. (p. 15)
Therefore, qualitative research emphasizes understanding by closely examining peoples words, actions, and records, as opposed to a quantitative research approach that investigates such words, actions, and records at a mathematically significant level, thus quantifying the results of observations. Qualitative research examines the patterns of meaning that emerge from data gathered; such patterns are often presented in the participants own words. Many students believe that qualitative research is easier than quantitative research; however, it takes not only a logical mind, but one that can take and make sense of ambiguity by searching for patterns and connections. Your task in qualitative research is to find patterns within words and observed actions, and to present those patterns for others to inspect while at the same time staying as close to the construction of the world of the participants as they originally experienced it. Again, your job as a researcher is not to make broad generalizations; rather, your job is to contextualize the findings.
PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH DESIGN
Phenomenological research is one of the most basic forms of research. This type of research involves the description of phenomena in our world. In this type of inquiry, the phenomena described are basic information, actions, behaviors, and changes of phenomena, but always the description is about what the phenomena look like from the perspective of the researcher and the participants in the research; it is not about how the phenomena function. Prior to beginning the research, you will need to have established from theory or from prior research what it is about the phenomenon you will study; from this perspective, descriptive research is theory or research driven.
Husserl, the twentieth-century philosopher and the father of phenomenology, was concerned with the study of experience from the perspective of the individual, and believed that the researcher could approximate those experiences through intuiting and rigorous examination of the subjects, objects, or peoples lived experiences, behaviors, or actions. He believed that researchers could gain subjective experience, essential realities, and insights into a persons or persons motivations and actions; thus, researchers could minimize presuppositions and traditionally held beliefs. The researchers interpretations of the phenomena allows it to, as in action research, inform, support, or challenge policy, procedures, and actions in society or organizations.
In a phenomenological research design, the researcher is concerned with clarifying the specific and recognizing phenomena through the eyes of the participants. Deep and rich descriptions of the phenomenon or phenomena are usually gathered through inductive, qualitative methods such as interviews, focus group discussions, and participant observation. Although phenomenological research has been related to other essentially qualitative approaches including ethnography (discussed later in this chapter), hermeneutics (analysis of the written word), and symbolic interactionism (making meaning of individuals interactions), it usually is akin to descriptive research in that it is about describing rather than explaining. Much of this type research has the researcher come to it without any preconceived notions or hypotheses; however, it is extremely unlikely that you, as the researcher, will not have a preconditioned paradigm, purpose, or hypothesis. Therefore, you, as the researcher, never can be removed from your own presuppositions about the phenomena; therefore, you should admit your own perspective under a heading in your dissertation methodology as Researchers Perspective or My Personal Perspective.
Techniques/Approaches/Methods
Phenomenological research can be based in either single-case designs or purposefully selected samples. A variety of qualitative techniques, approaches, or methods can be used in phenomenological research, including interviews, focus groups, participant or direct observation, and document or personal entry analyses. Of course in any of these approaches, the establishment of trust is important via good rapport and empathetic listening. The techniques are explained in more detail in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1Phenomenological Technique, Method, Approach
Phenomenological Technique, Method, Approach Defined Explanation
InterviewThe interview, both factual and meaningful, seeks to describe the meanings of central themes in the life world of the subjects. The main task in interviewing is to understand the meaning of what the interviewees say (Kvale, 1996). The interview can be structured, semistructured, or unstructured. In a structured or semi-structured interview, you will need an interview protocol that has been face validated. The interview is usually recorded and then transcribed with notes taken during the interview added later. Prior to the interview, you must: (a) secure a location with the least distraction, (b) explain the purpose of the interview, (c) address confidentiality and provide a consent form for signature, (d) explain the format of the interview, (e) indicate the length of the interview, (f) give your contact information, (g) allow interviewee to ask any questions about the interview, and (h) determine how you will record the interview data (if the tape recorder is used, verify that it is working periodically throughout the interview and if you take notes, be thoughtful of how and when notes are taken, not to make the interviewee feel uncomfortablenotes may be used for observations during the interview only).
During the interview, you will need to attend to: (a) careful listening, (b) nonverbal cues, (c) the progress of the conversation, (d) probing when needed, (e) taking notes, and (f) not responding during the interview.
Questions in the interview should be sequenced as follows: (a) ask factual, basic questions first, simply getting the interviewee involved, then place factual questions throughout the interview, (b) present-based questions should be asked prior to past-based or future-based questions, and (c) allow the interviewee to add any additional information at the end of the interview.
Note: the interview is time-consuming and resource extensive.
Focus GroupsThis technique is a form of interview, but with a group. It focuses on data generated via observation and communication between and among participants. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 365) stated that Merton et al., coined the term focus group in 1956 to apply to a situation in which the interviewer asks group members very specific questions about a topic after considerable research has already been completed, while Kreuger (1988) defined a focus group as a carefully planned discussion designed to obtain perceptions in a defined area of interest in a permissive, nonthreatening environment. (p. 18) You, or someone you train, can lead or moderate the group, which usually consists of four to twelve people. The less experienced the interviewer, the more people in the group may be likely to be frustrating or unwieldy; however, the less experienced the interviewer, the fewer people may likely not be encouraged to generate the information needed that a few more in a group could generate. In this technique, you would have an interview protocol established and validated. Additionally, it should be noted that you should not be alarmed if one participants discussion is influenced by another. This is normal in focus group research. We often call it piggybacking.
It is less time consuming and resource intensive than the individual interview. The protocol should go from more general questions to more specific and should consist of about 10 questions.
Participant or Direct ObservationThe participant observation technique is an observational method in qualitative research that uses the five senses to describe the (a) setting, (b) people, (c) occurrences, and (d) meaning of what was observed. In other words, it examines the intricacies of the interactions and relationships of individuals. It investigates the phenomena of this. This technique is usually done onsite; however, with the virtual world, it may be conducted using photographs, videotaping or streaming, and audiotaping or streaming. You will, in participant observation method, intentionally put yourself in the context or location of the phenomena being studied over an extended period. As a participant observer, you will become a part of the group and become fully engaged in experiencing what the participants are experiencing. You may combine some unstructured interviews during the time you are also observing. The extent to which you participate and the length of participation is up to you as the researcher. It truly depends on your research purpose.
In direct observation, you will conduct systematic observation and documentation of phenomena in its usual setting or location. There may be limitations in terms of gender, time, language, age, socioeconomics, or culture that you, as the researcher, will need to consider prior to entering as a participant. You may consider having other researchers make observations at the same time you do. You may wish to observe at other timesvary your times of observation to make your finding more reliable.
In direct observation you will be a quiet observer and will not interact with the participants; you will not intervene in situations in an attempt to influence the outcome of the study. As participant observers, you become a part of the group and are fully engaged in experiencing what those in the study group are experiencing. You may, however, conduct focus groups or individual interviews at another time during the study. But, unlike participant observation, the interviews will be considerably more structured and will likely be based on things you have observed so that you can obtain more in-depth understanding about what it is that you observed.
In both participant and direct observation, you will want to make notes on: (a) the physical environment, (b) sociological aspects of community, (c) hierarchical structures, (d) language, (e) communication venues, (f) unspoken communications or norms, (g) activities, and (h) your own thoughts and responses. Take down as much of the direct conversations as possible for reproduction of thoughts of the individuals and group.
Document AnalysisThis particular technique in qualitative research is related to the critique or analysis of documents for significance, meaning, and relevance within a particular context and phenomenon. Documents can consist of historical papers, personal entries, clinical records (if available), video, photos, electronic media, collections (stamps, clothes, other materials), books, newsletters, or newspapers (not an all inclusive list). Using this technique, you will (a) define your purpose(s), (b) collect your documents, and (c) review and analyze your documents. When you review your documents, you will want to label your documents and perhaps use differing colors of Post-it tabs for varying themes you find. You will want to use the constant comparison method as defined by Patton (1990) as to group answers to common questions [and] analyze different perspectives on central issues. (p. 376)
Discourse AnalysisDiscourse analysis is actually not a specific research method, but can inform the phenomenon being studied. It provides a deconstructive reading and interpretation of a problem or text. Discourse analysis can be stated as a set of methods and theories for investigating language in use and language in social contexts (Yates, Taylor, & Wetherell, 2001). It can be used as well in ethnography to understand and examine a persons social world. Approaches to discourse analysis may include discursive psychology; conversation analysis; critical discourse analysis and critical linguistics; and sociolinguistics. The defining of discourse analysis is part of its explanation. Stubbs (1983) defined it as being (a) concerned with language use beyond the boundaries of a sentence/utterance, (b) concerned with the interrelationships between language and society, and (c) concerned with the interactive or dialogic properties of everyday communication. The validity and reliability of discourse analysis may be found in four approaches: (a) deviant case analysis, (b) participant understanding, (c) coherence, and (d) readers evaluation. (Potter, 1996)
Following are examples of phenomenological studies by Meyertons (2006) and Gitonga (2006). (See Examples 5.1 and 5.2.)
Example 5.1This phenomenological study investigated the experiences of a set of faculty who taught classes in hybrid format at a small liberal arts university in Salem, Oregon. For this study, a hybrid format course was defined as a course that includes elements of both traditional face-to-face and technology-enhanced (often Internet) course components. The study consisted of a set of heuristic interviews with faculty members identified through an empirical survey I conducted in Fall 2002 as part of my duties as Director of Instructional Design and Development for the universitys technical services department.
Higher education leaders have consistently identified technology integration as an important priority for their faculty. Since in many cases faculty have proven reluctant to do so, it is clear that there has been some dissonance between leadership expectations and faculty experiences. An extensive review of relevant literature indicates that little research has been conducted specifically on the faculty experience with educational technology, although much evidence has been gathered on the student experience and on learning outcomes. The goal of this study was to discover if there were any common elements that faculty experience in working with hybrid formats, and to try to distill these elements into a set of recommendations to higher education leaders for improving faculty experiences with educational technology. The broader goal was to help develop practices that might improve ways faculty use educational technology to enhance teaching and learning. (Meyertons, 2006, pp. 12)
Example 5.2
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to explore beginning counselors experience of their first counseling position in their first year. Four counselors, who shared a similar counselor education background but who also differed by their degree majors, described their experiences. Using phenomenological methodology to collect and analyze data, two rounds of interviews were conducted in order to allow the four participants to individually describe their experiences. A focus group composed of all the participants verified the accuracy of the research findings. The study resulted in a fusion of common themes. Within the theme of hope and expectations, the essence of the beginning counselors experience revolved around support, clientele, salary, time, and continuity. Other common themes that emerged from the study were: (1) the process of transitioning from students to counselors, (2) exciting as well as challenging experiences as beginning counselors, and their perceptions of their level of preparedness for the first counseling position. In these themes, there were commonalities as well as uniquenessalities of the essence of their experience. (Gitonga, 2006, p. x)
Example 5.3
Abstract
The purpose of this single case study was to explore authentic communication for Japanese language learning in second-year Japanese classes at a small, private university in the Midwest. Types of authentic Japanese communication and materials in and outside of Japanese class were studied from four learners and one professors perspectives.
Data were collected throughout one academic year, the first semester of 2004 through the second semester of 2005. Multiple methods of data collection were used in this study including personal interviews, casual conversations, participant observations of classes and related events, and studying relevant documents, including the textbook, students study sheets, videos, oral exam transcripts, e-mail copies, reflection sheets, and web log copies.
Qualitative research procedures were used to study second-year Japanese language learners authentic communication. Data were analyzed by categorizing into codes, then themes and subthemes. Five themes emerged in this study: (1) the e-mail writing process, (2) the e-mail reading process, (3) the learning process, (4) learning through e-mail, and (5) authentic Japanese. Lastly, implications and recommendations based on the data were concluded. (Ozawa, 2006, n.p.)
The second example is a multiple case dissertation by Menconi (2006). (See Example 5.4.)
Example 5.4
Abstract
Looping is an instructional practice that allows the teacher to keep the same students over a two-year period. Multiage grouping is a more complex form of the multiyear configuration where the same teacher instructs students from two or three grade levels until they have completed the highest grade represented in that classroom. Both configurations present a logical approach toward developing long-term relationships which benefit students, teachers, parents, and administrators. Looping and multiage instruction beginnings go back to the one-room schoolhouse long before the Common School Reform Movement which introduced the graded school system of the 1860s. Even though the graded school system is over 150 years old, it still remains entrenched today. Consequently, looping and multiage instruction represent practices that require a paradigm shift from the graded school system.
While there are philosophical differences between looping and multiage instruction, there are also many similarities. Perhaps the most significant similarity is the long-term relationship that is developed between the child, teacher, and parent when the teacher has the same child for two years or two grade levels. This distinction develops many benefits such as curriculum coherence, safety, continuity, and student confidence. Two years with the same child also provides administrators and principals with many benefits. There is a tremendous savings of time because the students do not have to learn new routines and classroom management is easier. And there is a tremendous amount of professional development benefits for the teachers, since the teachers become better acquainted with the child and the curriculum.
Principals have indicated several concerns regarding the implementation of looping and multiage instruction, since it is a change from the standard graded school system. These concerns include the issues of more developmentally appropriate means for educating children, blending the curricula for two grade levels, and identifying staff members willing to undertake this paradigm shift.
The purpose of this study is to identify principal perspectives of the strengths and weaknesses of looping and multiage instruction from principals and lead teachers who have implemented them successfully. A multiple-case study design is used to investigate looping and multiage practices and provide a comparison of sites or cases so a range of generality or conditions is established. These sites include a wealthy, suburban elementary school using multiage practices, an integrated, middle-class, urban elementary school using looping, and a low-income, urban middle school using looping. Different information gathered from multiple sites and principal perspectives establishes a range of aspects or a conceptual framework that can assist principals in understanding these multiyear practices better. It is anticipated that this conceptual framework will be of value to those principals and administrators interested in implementing looping and multiage practices in their own schools or school districts. (Menconi, 2006, p. x)
ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH DESIGN
Ethnographic research requires that you conduct fieldwork to become involved with the individuals or group in a personal manner, using participant observation as a technique for gathering data for telling the groups or individuals story via rich narrative description. You will typically gather the data via interviews during the participant observation, videography, photography, and document analysis. These techniques of data gathering will yield thick and rich descriptions necessary for your ethnographic dissertation in the form of quotations (low inference descriptors), descriptions of the group and the contexts, and parts of documents. You will, as in participant observation, investigate the behaviors of the people, their language, their actions, and their artifacts. You will look for norms, mores, and customs. Prior to going in to conduct such research, you must be clear about your own biases, about colonization, about who the other is, about your impact on the group to be studied, and about basic respect. To conduct fieldwork for the ethnography, you will need to gain the trust of the individuals in charge; these are the gatekeepers.
In ethnographic studies, depending on your purpose, you may use convenience sampling (as explained previously under case study method). You may use stratified sampling that seeks out groups from various levels such as socioeconomic levels. Snowball sampling may also be used where referrals from your initial contacts are made to add to the group.
Ethnography does not come without serious consideration. Some critical features to consider prior to the selection of an ethnographic design are: (a) your own understanding of culture and cultural anthropology, the foundation of ethnography; (b) your ability to write in a narrative style so that others may understand the cultural occurrences and norms of the group; (c) your ability to be a part of the group, yet remain apart from the group as the researcher, thus creating a fine line and balance between the researcher and the researched; (d) the ethical implications for studying the group or individuals; and (e) an extensive time commitment for the fieldwork.
Although conversation analysis was mentioned under the approach of discourse analysis within the phenomenological research method previously, we could consider conversation analysis as a separate approach and list it under ethnography and classify it as an ethnographic approach. In this type of analysis, one studies natural conversations in a variety of conventional settings (interviews, courts, schools, telephone conversation, restaurant, family conversations) to determine how the participants interact, construct conversation across time, identify problems, and/or exhibit gestures and eye contact.
We are placing narrative analysis within the larger context of the ethnographic research method, because according to Connelly and Clandinin (1990) narrative analysis is how humans make meaning of experience by endlessly telling and retelling stories about themselves (p. 4). Mishler (1986) frames the narrative through four categories: (a) orientation that describes the setting and character, (b) abstract that summarizes the events or incidents of the story, (c) complicating action that offers an evaluative commentary on events, conflicts and themes, and (d) resolution that describes the outcomes of the story or conflict (pp. 236237).
Examples of ethnographic studies follow. The first ethnographic study comes from a masters thesis by Quon (2006). (See Example 5.5.)
Example 5.5
Abstract
This study examines gendered patterns of participation in teens of classroom floor access and control with elementary school children. Primary participants in the study include approximately 97 students from four intact classrooms and 4 teachers. Eight students were also selected for observation.
Field notes from participant observation, informal interviews, and video/audio taped classroom interactions provided the data for this classroom ethnography. A portion of the data was analyzed in detail for time spent in effort and ratified speaking tone. The remainder of the data was analyzed through constant cross comparison for patterns of student talk participation in whole class interactions.
Findings revealed that success in talk is contingent on teacher organization of talk. Tightly organized floors rendered more equitable distribution of talk between boys and girls. Loosely organized floors rendered more differences in talk distribution in favor of boys. In all four classrooms, however, the girls are just as successful as boys in securing floor spaces, although they had to invest much more effort in hand raises. Data analysis of vocal children revealed that language proficiency can provide a context in which children gain self-confidence. Self-confidence allows the children to learn how to use language proficiency in order to gain status with other children.
The general improvement of womens social status in the workforce and other contexts may help explain why gendered gap in participation is diminishing in the classrooms. (Quon, 2006, pp. 12)
The second example is from a doctoral dissertation by Thompson (2006), who employed an ethnographic approach. (See Example 5.6.)
Example 5.6
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to describe and interpret the dimensions of performance creativity within a Montessori culture. Performance creativity is a reconceptualization of how creative activity is recognized and encompasses four elements: self, self-expression, meaning, and cultural significance. The conceptual framework for this study articulates creativity as a dynamic self-construction influenced by the meaning one draws from a cultural learning environment. The reconceptualization of creativity is built upon a frame of neuroscience research, Montessori philosophy, and selected Eastern/Asian, African, and Native American views of creativity.
This qualitative study was conducted in a Montessori primary and elementary school in the western United States, and it employed both the traditional ethnographic techniques of extended observations and artifact analysis. The study also used the performance ethnographic method of the collaborative dialogic interview.
The goal of performance ethnography is to produce a research-based performance narrative which views research participants as collaborators in the composition of the performance script. One of the facets of a performative study is that it initiates a dialogue within a larger community. The goal for this study is that it will invite educators to begin to reexamine how and why children express creativity and how creativity can be envisioned through a multicultural lens.
The findings of this work present emerging connections among neurological, Montessori, and multicultural perspectives of creativity that were observed in a Montessori learning environment. Educational implications related to this study include the potential for the fields of neuroscience and education to be drawn closer together, by using a multicultural avenue through which to describe creativity. The goal of designing curriculum and teacher education that is supported by neurological evidence is one that can be supported by further research in this area. (Thompson, 2006, n.p.)
McFadden (2006) used narrative analysis to conduct her dissertation study. (See Example 5.7.)
Example 5.7
Abstract
Abundant research exists on the relationship that religion or spirituality has played in the lives and recovery of individuals diagnosed with physical ailments, while little research is found regarding the role that religion or spirituality has played in the lives of individuals diagnosed with a chronic or severe mental illness. Therefore, the researcher undertook to explore, investigate, understand, and describe the lived religious or spiritual experiences of these individuals, using a qualitative research inquiry and narrative analysis.
Data were collected during unstructured, informal interviews with seven adult volunteer participants. Data analysis of the interviews provided three major relationship themes common to all participants: with self, others, and God.
All participants acknowledge some form of religious or spiritual upbringing, and all report that their religious or spiritual practices improved once they were diagnosed. The participants identify a holistic approach to their recovery that incorporates their physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual well-being, and they further suggest a need for health care professionals to include a spiritual aspect in their treatment. Finally, all participants report a renewed sense of hope, meaning, and purpose for their lives, which they attribute to their religion and spirituality. (McFadden, 2006, p. iii)
GROUNDED THEORY RESEARCH DESIGN
Grounded theory, first described by Glaser and St
