Topic 7 DQ 2
Based on Chapters 6 and 7 of the ebook along with your prior knowledge, what does it mean to use ethics in your thinking?
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21st Century Skills:
Critical Thinking and Problem Solving
A Grand Canyon University Media Publication
Edition 1
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CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
PAGE v
The previous two classes you took at Grand Canyon University, UNV-
103 and UNV-104, were designed to equip you with some of the skills you
will need to succeed in college. So far, you have learned how to manage
your time, take effective notes, build study skills, and search for and
evaluate resources.
In this class, PHI-105, we will continue the process of building your
information literacy by developing your critical thinking and problem-
solving skills. At the college level, you must be able to support your
opinions. If you are confronted with problems or challenges, you must
be able to solve them creatively and constructively. This book is designed
to help you develop these skills.
The book also features a number of shorter articles on famous individuals
from different walks of life who have excelled at solving problems or
at approaching them in innovative ways. From George Orwell to Jane
Goodall, from Frederick Douglass to Abraham Lincoln, these individuals
demonstrate what is possible when the human mind is freed to think
critically and solve problems.
ABOUT THIS
BOOK
INTRODUCTION. ABOUT THIS BOOKCHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
PAGE vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER ONE
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER ONE. Critical Thinking, Memory, and Forgetting
by Marti Abitheira
TOPICS
The Amazing Brain …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1
Whole-Brain Thinking ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2
Memory ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 2
Short-Term Memory _______________________________________________________________3
Long-Term Memory ________________________________________________________________4
Forgetting …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4
Why We Forget …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5
Retrieval Failure _____________________________________________________________________5
Interference _________________________________________________________________________5
Failure to Store ______________________________________________________________________6
Motivated Forgetting ________________________________________________________________6
What Defines Critical Thinking? ……………………………………………………………………………….. 6
Obstacles to Critical Thinking …………………………………………………………………………………… 8
Assumption vs. Fact _________________________________________________________________8
Thinking Superficially ________________________________________________________________8
Jumping to Conclusions ______________________________________________________________8
All-or-None Thinking ________________________________________________________________8
Benefits of Critical Thinking ……………………………………………………………………………………… 9
Exercises/Food for Thought ………………………………………………………………………………………. 10
Questions ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 10
CRITICAL THINKING SIDEBARS. By Declan Joyce
Problem Solvers: Eratosthenes ………………………………………………………………………………….. 4
Critical Thinkers: Jane Goodall ………………………………………………………………………………….. 8
CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
PAGE vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER ONE, TWO
TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED
REFERENCES
References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………11
CHAPTER TWO. Perception, by R. Jacob Aroz
TOPICS
Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………12
Perception ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………13
The Five Senses ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………13
The Deception of the Senses/Misperception ………………………………………………………………16
Prewriting Strategies …………………………………………………………………………………………………..17
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………19
Food for Thought Exercise …………………………………………………………………………………………..20
Three Perspectives Brainstorm ______________________________________________________ 20
CRITICAL THINKING SIDEBARS. By Declan Joyce
Altered Perception: Sergei Eisenstein ……………………………………………………………………….. 14
Problem Solver: John Harrison ………………………………………………………………………………….. 20
REFERENCES
References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………22
CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
PAGE viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER THREE
TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED
CHAPTER THREE. Emotion and Emotional Intelligence
by Kristen DiCarlo
TOPICS
Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………23
Opening Questions ………………………………………………………………………………………………………23
Emotional Intelligence and Making Decisions ……………………………………………………………24
Emotional Bias ______________________________________________________________________ 24
Enculturation _______________________________________________________________________ 25
Denial and Rationalization _________________________________________________________ 26
Cognitive Distortions …………………………………………………………………………………………………..26
Always Being Right _________________________________________________________________ 26
Global Labeling _____________________________________________________________________ 27
Emotional Reasoning _______________________________________________________________ 27
Shoulds _____________________________________________________________________________ 27
Blaming ____________________________________________________________________________ 27
Personalization _____________________________________________________________________ 28
Catastrophizing _____________________________________________________________________ 28
Overgeneralization _________________________________________________________________ 28
Polarized Thinking __________________________________________________________________ 28
Filtering ____________________________________________________________________________ 28
Developing a Thesis Statement …………………………………………………………………………………..29
Exercises ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………3 1
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………3 1
CRITICAL THINKING SIDEBARS. By Declan Joyce
Critical Thinkers: Nellie Bly ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 25
Altered Perception: Orson Welles………………………………………………………………………………..29
CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
PAGE ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER THREE, FOUR
TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED
REFERENCES
References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………32
CHAPTER FOUR. Fallacies, by Elizabeth Larson, Thomas Dyer, and John Steele
TOPICS
Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………33
Deductive Fallacies ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 34
Inductive Fallacies ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 35
Reasoning Fallacies ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..36
Analogical Order ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….36
Analogical Reasoning ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 36
The Classic Radiation Problem ______________________________________________________ 37
Argument by Analogy …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 37
Premise 1 ___________________________________________________________________________ 38
Premise 2 ___________________________________________________________________________ 38
Conclusion __________________________________________________________________________ 38
Relevance ……………………………………………………………………… 39
Truth …………………………………………………………………………….. 39
Number of Instances ………………………………………………………. 39
Differences ……………………………………………………………………. 39
A Famous Analogy ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….40
Persuasive Essay Outline …………………………………………………………………………………………….4 1
Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..42
Focus Questions …………………………………………………………………………………………………………..43
The Scientific Method ………………………………………………………………………………………………….44
CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
PAGE x
TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER FOUR, FIVE
TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED
Scientific Method in Everyday Life ……………………………………………………………………………..45
Argument 1 _________________________________________________________________________ 46
Argument 2 _________________________________________________________________________ 46
Argument 3 _________________________________________________________________________ 46
Key Points to Remember ……………………………………………………………………………………………..46
CRITICAL THINKING SIDEBARS. By Declan Joyce
Problem Solvers: Carl Jones ………………………………………………………………………………………. 37
Great Persuaders: Frederick Douglass ………………………………………………………………………. 42
REFERENCES
References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………47
CHAPTER FIVE. Thinking and Language, by Elizabeth Larson
TOPICS
Opening Questions ………………………………………………………………………………………………………48
Relationship Between Thinking and Language …………………………………………………………..49
The Innateness of Language ………………………………………………………………………………………..49
The Acquisition of Language ………………………………………………………………………………………. 50
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis/Linguistic Relativity ……………………………………………………………50
Does the Language We Speak Impact Our Perception? _____________________________ 53
CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
PAGE xi
TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER FIVE
TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED
Figurative Language ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 54
Similes ______________________________________________________________________________ 54
Metaphors __________________________________________________________________________ 54
Idioms ______________________________________________________________________________ 54
Symbolism ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………54
Language in a Cultural Context ………………………………………………………………………………….. 55
Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning …………………………………………………………………………….. 55
Deductive Reasoning _______________________________________________________________ 56
Major Premise ………………………………………………………………. 56
Minor Premise ………………………………………………………………. 56
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………. 56
Inductive Reasoning……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 57
Generalizations _____________________________________________________________________ 58
Cause and Effect ____________________________________________________________________ 58
Analogies ___________________________________________________________________________ 58
First Draft …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….59
One Final Thought ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….60
Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..6 1
CRITICAL THINKING SIDEBARS. By Declan Joyce
Critical Thinkers: George Orwell …………………………………………………………………………………51
Altered Perception: The AIDA Model…………………………………………………………………………..58
REFERENCES
References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………62
CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
PAGE xii
TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER SIX, SEVEN
TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED
CHAPTER SIX. Communication and Persuasion, by Thomas Dyer
TOPICS
Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………63
The Art of Persuasion …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 64
Ethics in Persuasion ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 65
Manipulation ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….65
Avoiding Bias ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….66
Informative, Explanatory, and Persuasive Writing …………………………………………………….67
Assessing a Persuasive Argument ………………………………………………………………………………. 68
Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..72
CRITICAL THINKING SIDEBARS. By Declan Joyce
Great Persuaders: Abraham Lincoln ……………………………………………………………………………69
Altered Perception: Political Advertising ……………………………………………………………………7 1
REFERENCES
References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………72
CHAPTER SEVEN. Creative Thinking, by John Steele
TOPICS
Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………73
Writing Process Recap ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 75
CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
PAGE xiii
TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER SEVEN, APPENDIX A
TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED
Thesis 1 ____________________________________________________________________________ 75
Thesis 2 ____________________________________________________________________________ 75
Thesis 3 ____________________________________________________________________________ 75
Persuasive Writing Final Draft Checklist ……………………………………………………………………78
A Final Word ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..80
Key Points to Remember …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 81
CRITICAL THINKING SIDEBARS. By Declan Joyce
Critical Thinkers: Jean-Francois Champollion ……………………………………………………………76
Problem Solvers: Humphry Davy ……………………………………………………………………………….. 80
REFERENCES
References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………82
APPENDIX A. Supplemental Notes and Information
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
Image Credits ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………A
Notes One …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….B
Notes Two ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………C
CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
PAGE xiv
TABLE OF CONTENTS. APPENDIX B
APPENDIX B. Biographies
AUTHORS
Marti Abitheira ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………D
R. Jacob Aroz ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….D
Kristen DiCarlo …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….D
Elizabeth Larson ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….E
Thomas Dyer ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..E
John Steele …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..E
Declan Joyce ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..F
TABLE OF CONTENTS. CONTINUED
CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
PAGE 1
CH1. CRITICAL THINKING, MEMORY, AND FORGETTING
CHAPTER ONE.
Critical Thinking, Memory,
and Forgetting
By Marti Abitheira
The Amazing Brain
The adult human brain weighs only 3
pounds yet has the capacity of a thousand
supercomputers. It has enough room to store
every phone number in the United States and
continue to perform day-to-day tasks easily
and effectively. Through this amazing organ
runs an endless stream of ideas, memories,
and mental pictures. We can recall the three-
dimensional layouts of homes and buildings,
memorize thousands of lines of poetry, or
hear the music of a complete symphony.
The brain, with its mysterious ability to think
and reason, allows us to make sense of the
world in which we live. Thoughts accumulate,
allowing knowledge and wisdom to grow;
we learn to evaluate assumptions, examine
evidence, and assess conclusions. Thought
motivates actions and interactions. Children
undergo this intellectual development
naturally, driven by their innate curiosity to
know more about the world around them.
From a young age, children are capable of
certain foundational thinking concepts. Their
thought processes are initially self-centered,
but over time they begin to consider how their
behavior affects others. They begin to examine
thinking, to focus on purpose and judgments,
and to apply basic intellectual standards
to their thoughts, including accuracy and
relevance. At 12 months, children typically
realize that objects continue to exist when out
of sight. This concept, which is called object
permanence, works alongside the childs
expanding memory to make the world more
predictable. At times, however, children will
still misinterpret reality. A 1-year-old child
CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
PAGE 2
CH1. CRITICAL THINKING, MEMORY, AND FORGETTING
PAGE 2
CH1. CRITICAL THINKING, MEMORY, AND FORGETTING
may begin to cry when a toy unexpectedly
rolls a few inches toward them. The world is
still a mysterious place to them, and children
have a fragile understanding of the difference
between animate and inanimate objects.
Once language is learned and understood,
deeper thoughts can be developed and put
into words. Growing communication skills
increase interactions and produce knowledge,
which in turns promotes the deeper skill of
critical thinking. Thinking and language grow
and develop together. Thought processes
are expressed with increasing subtlety in
words, tone, gestures, and facial expressions.
Increasing interaction with others promotes
new ideas and thoughts that in turn foster
knowledge.
Whole-Brain Thinking
Whole-brain thinking involves understand-
ing that the brain is designed to be whole and
to integrate seamlessly the various special-
ized functions of its hemispheres. We do not
function with half a brain, as the terms left-
brained and right-brained imply. In fact,
the brains very design allows us to think in
terms of and as opposed to or. Therein lies
our ability to think critically, create, and com-
municate, without limits. However, it is also
true that our individual brains tend to favor
certain types of thinking and learning over
others. The brain is designed to be whole, but
the tendency exists in each of us to favor one
side of the brain or the other depending on
the task at hand. Neuroanamotist Jill Bolte
Taylor describes this in her book My Stroke
of Insight (2008):
Although each of our cerebral
hemispheres processes information in
uniquely different ways, the two work
intimately together when it comes to
every action we take. The more we
understand about how the hemispheres
work together the more successful we
will be in understanding the natural gifts
of our brain (p. 39).
Memory
Our brains memory, not unlike the
memory in a computer, allows for the
storage of information for later use. In terms
of memory, the major difference between
the human brain and computers is in how
information is stored. Computers have only
two types: permanent storage and permanent
deletion. The human brain, on the other
hand, has three distinct types of storage
(not including permanent deletion). The first
process is encoding, the process used to
transform information into a form that will
allow it to be stored. For a computer, this
means converting data into 1s and 0s. For the
brain, it means transforming the data into a
meaningful form such as an association with
an existing memory, image, or sound.
Second is actual storage, which simply
means retaining the information. A computer
must write the 1s and 0s onto the hard drive.
In the brain, it takes the form of a reason or
incentive for the memory to be stored. Think,
for example, how little time it takes us to
learn to be careful around a hot stove.
The final process is retrieval, which brings
the memory out of storage and reverses
the process of encodingin other words, it
returns the information to a form similar to
ENCODING
ACTUAL STORAGE
RETRIEVAL
Storage
Processes
CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
http://allpsych.com/dictionary/e.html
http://allpsych.com/dictionary/s.html
http://allpsych.com/dictionary/r.html
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CH1. CRITICAL THINKING, MEMORY, AND FORGETTING
how it was originally stored. The computer
mimics this process, changing the data from
1s and 0s to a readable document or image.
Short-term memory comes into play when
information is moved into consciousness.
This is information that is currently active,
such as reading this page, talking to a
friend, or writing an essay. Short-term
memory has a limited capacity normally
lasting roughly 30 seconds. The brain can
remember approximately five to nine pieces
of information in short-term memory at any
given time. However, if short-term memory
lasts only 30 seconds, how does anyone ever
get any work done? Do people essentially lose
focus or concentration twice every minute?
The answer is no, because of a second type
of short-term memory known as working
memory. Working memory is the process that
takes place when an individual continually
focuses on material for longer than short-
term memory permits.
When short-term memory is full and more
information enters, displacement occurs.
New information pushes out portions of the
old information. Short-term memory skills
can be improved with practice, such as vi-
sualization techniques card sharks use to
store a sequence of dozens of cards at a time.
Short-Term Memory
There are typically
six reasons why information
is stored in short-term memory:
1
3
5
2
4
6
Primacy effect: Information that occurs first is
remembered better than information occurring later.
The first word, item, or number on a list is generally
more readily remembered.
Recency effect: Often the final piece of information is
remembered more easily because not as much time has
passed.
Distinctiveness: If an element of the memory stands
out, it is often remembered more easily. Any distinctive
information is easier to remember than that which is
familiar, usual, or mundane.
Frequency effect: Repetition aids memory. For
example, think of having to remember specific dates in
history. The more repetition, the stronger the memory.
Associations: When a memory is associated with
previously memorized information, it is easier to
remember.
Reconstruction: This refers to a process whereby the
blanks in ones memory are involuntarily filled in. When
one tries to get a complete picture of an event or image
in his or her mind, the brain may fill in missing parts
without him or her realizing it.
CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7CHAPTERS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
PAGE 4
CH1. CRITICAL THINKING, MEMORY, AND FORGETTING
Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory is similar to a
computers hard drive. Unlike short-term
memory, long-term memory is relatively
permanent and virtually unlimited in
capacity. Information that passes from short-
term to long-term memory typically has some
significance attached to it. Life would be dull
without memories of the day you graduated
high school, scored the winning goal, or had
your first kiss. On the other hand, how easy
it is to forget details that have no relevance,
like the color of the car parked in front of the
local grocery store or what outfit you wore
last Tuesday. Other information is stored in
long-term memory because it is attached to
something significant. Remembering it was
a warm day when you graduated from high
school is one example. The actual temperature
is of little importance, but the warmth of the
day is attached to the memory.
PROBLEM SOLVERS:
Eratosthenes
By Declan Joyce
This series of sidebars examines
individuals who used ingenuity and
critical thinking to solve difficult
problems.
The next time you feel frustrated with
your smartphones map software, spare
a thought for Erastosthenes (c. 276
B.C.c. 195 B.C.). He had to find his way
around the world using a piece of wood.
One of the most famous men of his
day, Eratosthenes was a mathematician,
astronomer, geographer, poet, and
chief librarian of the Great Library of
Alexandria in Ptolemaic Egypt. At one
point, he read a curious fact about the
Forgetting
Memory cannot be discussed without men-
tioning forgetting. Forgetting is a natural
phenomenon. If every detail of every minute
of every hour of every day were remembered,
no matter how good, bad, or insignificant,
sifting through all of that data would make
remembering significant information, such
as where you left your keys, a difficult, time-
consuming task. There are many reasons
people forget and often these reasons over-
lap. Some information never makes it to long-
term memory. Other information gets there
but is lost before it can become a permanent
part of long-term memory. Another reason
is decay, in which information unused for
an extended period of time decays or fades
away. The brain may be designed to erase
data that is no longer pertinent.
Failing to remember does not mean the
information is lost forever. Sometimes the
information is there but for various reasons
cannot be accessed. This could be due to dis-
traction or an error o
