“Synthesis Worksheet”
Synthesis is the act of creating something new from multiple existing entities. Synthesis of research, then, is creating a new idea from existing ideas. This assignment is designed to help you identify how themes can emerge from reading literature and how you can synthesize this information in a way that creates new knowledge. You will use your understandings of the Topic 2 readings to complete a synthesis worksheet.
General Requirements:
This assignment will be used as a pre-writing activity for the synthesis paper in Topic 5.
Locate and download “Synthesis Worksheet” from the Course Materials for this topic.
Review the articles by Baker & Pifer (2011), Gardner (2009), and Smith & Hatmaker (2014) located in the Course Materials for this topic.
This assignment uses a rubric. Review the rubric prior to beginning the assignment to become familiar with the expectations for successful completion.
Doctoral learners are required to use APA style for their writing assignments. Review the GCU APA Style Guide for Writing located in the Student Success Center.
Directions:
Complete the Synthesis Worksheet for the articles by Baker & Pifer (2011), Gardner (2009), and Smith & Hatmaker (2014). The completed worksheet will include the following sections:
An Introduction that introduces and provides context for the topic, presents three common themes that emerged from the readings, and provides organization for the paper with a thesis statement.
A description of the evidence to support three common themes that emerged from the articles. Since this is likely your first experience with this depth of synthesis, we have provided two of the themes found in the articles. Your task is to identify a third theme and to provide evidence from each article for all three common themes.
A conclusion where you will return to your thesis and provide evidence showing you successfully addressed your thesis statement. Discuss the connections that you made from the evidence and how each theme emerged from the central topic of doctoral identity.
The role of relationships in the transition from doctoral student to
independent scholar
Vicki L. Bakera* and Meghan J. Piferb$
aEconomics & Management, Albion College, Albion, USA; bHigher Education, Pennsylvania
State University, University Park, USA
(Received 9 January 2010; final version received 8 July 2010)
Little research and practice has focused specifically on Stage 2 of the doctoral
student experience the critical transition from dependence to independence. In
the United States, a student completes coursework, passes candidacy exams, and
begins the dissertation proposal process during Stage 2. Given the distinct
experiences associated with this stage, it is important for researchers, faculty and
administrators to understand each stage fully. Our goal is to shed light on how
students begin to enact the academic career during this critical transition by
specifically exploring the role of relationships in the identity development process.
We rely on a theoretical framework that brings together sociocultural perspectives
of learning and developmental networks to reveal a connection between
relationships and learning. This study highlights the effects of relationships and
interactions on particular strategies and experiences associated with Stage 2 of
doctoral education, and therefore students identity development and transition
to independence.
Keywords: doctoral education; identity development; developmental networks;
learning
Introduction
Doctoral education is the first step towards a faculty career and the development of a
professional scholarly identity (Austin and McDaniels 2006; Austin and Wulff 2004).
Throughout this educational experience, students learn about the nature of the
academic career, as well as the language, research, and teaching skills associated within
a particular domain or discipline. In the United States, doctoral education is
conceptualized as a series of three stages. Stage 1 occurs from admission through the
first year of coursework. In Stage 2, the student typically completes coursework, passes
candidacy exams, and begins the dissertation proposal process. In Stage 3, the student
focuses on completing the dissertation (Tinto 1993). It is important to understand the
distinct experiences of each stage fully to provide insights useful to students, faculty,
and practitioners interested in successful preparation for academic practice. As
McAlpine and colleagues (2009) noted, We need to understand better the experiences
of and related challenges faced by doctoral students in the process of coming to
understand academic practice and establishing themselves as academics (97).
*Corresponding author. Email: [emailprotected]
$Now at: Education and Human Services, Lock Haven University, Lock Haven, USA
Studies in Continuing Education
Vol. 33, No. 1, March 2011, 517
ISSN 0158-037X print/ISSN 1470-126X online
# 2011 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/0158037X.2010.515569
http://www.informaworld.com
http://www.informaworld.com
While prior research has examined Stage 1 (Golde 1998; Baker Sweitzer 2007,
2008, 2009) and Stage 3 (Sternberg 1981), little research and practice has focused
specifically on Stage 2, the critical transition from dependence to independence as
described by Lovitts (2005). During Stage 2, students move away from the structure
provided by course schedules and enter into a self-directed, often isolating, period.
Students begin to develop their own academic identities, professional voices, and
independence as scholars, yet they often struggle with how to effectively manage this
stage without the guidance and structure that characterized Stage 1. As they apply
the knowledge and insight gained through coursework, students can become lost in
their efforts to become independent scholars.
Although researchers consistently suggest that identity development is a crucial
dimension of the doctoral student experience, few studies have empirically examined
this process. Furthermore, few studies have explored the influence of students
relationships with others, beyond the academic advisor, on learning and identity
development during graduate study (exceptions include Baker and Lattuca forth-
coming; Baker Sweitzer 2009; McAlpine, Jazvac-Martek, and Hopwood 2009).
Relying on data from our qualitative study of Stage 2 (Baker, Pifer, and Flemion
2009), we examine the role of students relationships in the identity development
process during this distinct stage of the transition to independent scholar.
Developmental networks and sociocultural perspectives of learning
The notion of identity development in the professions is not novel. For years,
researchers have explored the changes that occur as a result of graduate training,
particularly in medicine and K12 education (e.g., Becker and Carper 1956). Very
few studies, however, have empirically investigated identity development in the
context of doctoral education. For example, Hall (1968) examined the professional
identity development of doctoral students during the qualifying or candidacy exam
(a necessary step towards achieving candidacy that typically requires students to
demonstrate a certain level of content mastery) and found that graduate students
were better able to envision themselves as future faculty members after completing
the qualifying exam, regardless of whether they passed the exam. Little research has
advanced the findings presented in Halls work, however, and more research is
needed to understand the stages and processes of identity development in doctoral
education.
The transition to any new professional role, including that of doctoral student,
requires the acquisition of new skills and competencies, and the development of new
relationships while altering existing ones. Wortham (2006) points out that individuals
have identities before entering a new domain or community and that these identities
may interfere with learning as it is defined in the new domain. People adapt to new
professional roles, Ibarra (1999) suggests, by experimenting with new identities or
provisional selves. The nature of a persons network of relationships can affect the
creation, selection, and retention of these provisional identities. Ashforth (2001) and
Goffmans (1961) assertions that social identities are ascribed to people, rather than
created by them, link sociocultural theories of learning with theories of develop-
mental networks. Podolny and Baron (1997) argue that social networks socialize
aspiring members, regulate inclusion, and convey expectations about roles. Similarly,
6 V.L. Baker and M.J. Pifer
Ibarra and Deshpande (2004) contend that social identities in work settings are co-
created by those in the local setting; identities emerge through network processes.
The breadth and interconnectedness of social influences on learning and identity
development acknowledged in sociocultural and network theories illuminate a
limitation of prior research on doctoral education, which generally accounts for the
importance of interpersonal relationships in doctoral student success exclusively by
examining the student-advisor dyad (Nettles and Millet 2006; Paglis, Green, and
Bauer 2006). Recently, Austin and McDaniels (2006) argued for the development of
broader professional networks in socialization to the professoriate. Yet, we must
expand our understanding of the role of relationships and interactions even farther
beyond this definition, as professional networks are not the only ones at play in
doctoral socialization. Tinto (1993) and Weidman, Twale, and Stein (2001) provide
evidence that students networks of relationships within and outside of the academic
community are important to persistence and professional success. Additional
research has confirmed their findings that a variety of relationships beyond the
student-advisor dyad are important for persistence and success in doctoral
education, such as relationships with family, friends, and former colleagues (Baker
Sweitzer 2007, 2009; Hopwood and Sutherland 2009).
To explore the connections among developmental relationships, learning, and
identity development, we relied on the interdisciplinary framework developed by
Baker and Lattuca (forthcoming) that brings together developmental network theory
and sociocultural perspectives of learning. Our reliance on this interdisciplinary
framework allowed us to explore whether and how students relationships within and
outside of the academic community influence the development of their professional
identities. In using this framework, we acknowledge and call attention to the social
nature of identity development in doctoral education. The application of an
integrated approach to the sociocultural influences of identity development during
doctoral study allows us to link ontological changes in self-understanding to
epistemological changes (alterations in domain knowledge, skills, and views of
knowledge). We argue that consideration of interactions and relationships, and the
learning that occurs through them, is critical to understanding the identity
development process that occurs as students prepare for academic practice.
Methods
Valley University (pseudonym), a top-rated research institution, has nationally
ranked undergraduate and graduate colleges of business and education (US News
and World Report 2010). Valleys College of Business offers the PhD in five
disciplines: accounting, finance, marketing, management and organization, and
supply chain and information systems and prepares students for faculty appoint-
ments. Valleys higher education doctoral program offers both PhD and DEd
degrees, and prepares individuals for faculty and administrative appointments. We
interviewed a total of 31 doctoral students in business and higher education. This
included students who were currently engaged in Stage 2 at the time of the study, as
well as those who had recently completed Stage 2.
Of the 31 students, 14 were female (45%). One participant was African American
(3%), three were Asian (10%), one was Asian American (3%), two were Indian (6%),
and six were international students (19%). The remaining 18 participants were White
Studies in Continuing Education 7
(58%). A semi-structured interview protocol was used to guide our interviews. The
interview protocol captured information on six areas related to Stage 2:
(1) key experiences,
(2) challenges,
(3) goals for performance/advancement,
(4) key relationships,
(5) types of support present/absent, and
(6) identity (personal and professional).
Each author independently coded interview transcripts using these six themes as
a guide. The authors also compiled interview excerpts that illustrated and supported
these ideas.
The role of relationships: purposes and outcomes
In this paper, we highlight three themes related to the role of relationships in the
identity development process and preparation for academic practice. The three
themes are:
(1) general support and advice,
(2) identity development as student (e.g., scholar in training), and
(3) identity development for academic practice (scholar).
In the following section, we discuss these themes as they relate to the key
characteristics of Stage 2 of doctoral education.
General support and advice
Given that Stage 2 is unlike any other professional or educational experience that
doctoral students have faced, many students relied on relationships to help them
navigate the basic challenges associated with this stage.
Lack of structure
Stage 1 is characterized by coursework, due dates, syllabi, and consistent interactions
with faculty, peers, and administrators. Having recently completed this stage,
participants struggled with the lack of structure that characterizes Stage 2.
Relationships with academic advisors (or supervisors) and advanced students played
a crucial role in helping students overcome this lack of structure. For example, many
academic advisors/supervisors helped their students develop a writing schedule to
help keep them on task. Advanced students shared their own strategies, such as daily
or weekly writing goals, successful writing habits, and writing support groups. The
anecdotal evidence and advice that these individuals offered to students dealing with
the uncertainty of this stage was immeasurable in providing some understanding of
how to avoid succumbing to what some participants called the lost year.
In the absence of such relationships, some students struggled to have even a basic
understanding of what to expect during this stage and how to deal with the dramatic
8 V.L. Baker and M.J. Pifer
change in structure during the transition to Stage 2. For example, several students
confided in us that their advisors/supervisors were essentially non-existent, which
resulted in no guidance, no sounding board with whom to share ideas or concerns,
and no mentoring or advice. The students who did not have this key source of
support struggled with the basic tasks of how to structure their daily schedules, and
the larger goal of persisting through Stage 2.
Isolation
Because students were no longer in the classroom in Stage 2, their interactions with
community members were greatly reduced or even non-existent. Students spoke of
the drastic change from being in the classroom and office one day and working
independent of those environments the next. Relationships both in and out of the
academic community became paramount for helping students deal with the isolation
associated with Stage 2. All of the students in our study spoke of the isolation they
felt during this transition period, and found that relationships helped keep [them]
sane, helped keep [them] on task, and were vital to feeling like a normal person.
Relationships within the academic community, primarily ones academic program
or department, serve as conduits to the academic community and help keep students
informed of events and professional development opportunities. Professional
relationships also have the potential to serve as sources of friendship and personal
support as students engage in the sometimes challenging parallel process of forming
their identities as students and scholars. Personal relationships those outside of
students professional lives were emphasized by participants as equally important
sources of support during Stage 2. Family and friends who have known students well
before their engagement in doctoral studies provided perspective and support that
help students remain focused on their work, as well as their motivations for success,
their prior accomplishments, their identities and roles outside of their profession,
and other sources of encouragement.
Unfortunately, not all students had positive relationships to rely on during this
time. In fact, a few students felt they had no sources of support, which made the
transition even more difficult. One student, for example, was far from her family and
personal support network. She expressed sadness and disappointment over not
having close friendships, and wished she had such relationships to help her manage
the negative emotions and challenges associated with Stage 2. When asked how she
would like to improve her experience as a doctoral student, she replied simply,
I would like more friends. . . . I really hope I can establish friendships with other
students.
Key experiences
Because students in Stage 2 were no longer in the classroom, other experiences were
crucial for helping them feel part of the academic community and engaged in the
ongoing identity development process. This included experiences such as research
assistantships, teaching assistantships, brown bag lunches, and student organization
meetings. The transition to independent scholar includes understanding and
engaging in the activities and experiences associated with the academic career.
Opportunities for these experiences presented students with a realistic job preview of
Studies in Continuing Education 9
life as an academic and the interactions needed for embracing and enacting that role.
Such opportunities also communicated a sense of being valued within the academic
community. One student said, I have an assistantship that folks want. [Because of]
the people that I get to rub elbows with, people want that job. That tells me Im
valued in the community, at least by faculty. Faculty members, including academic
advisors and research supervisors, were critical for helping students become aware of
the importance of opportunities for continued learning and professional develop-
ment, and the need to identify or create such opportunities. Advanced students were
also important, as they shed light on the experiences (and related successes and
failures) that they found to be most helpful in preparing for the later stages of the
program.
When students do not have connections with people who can serve as bridges, to
use a networks term, in their development networks, they often miss out on
opportunities for key experiences and question their sense of belonging. Bridges
serve to connect students to valuable experiences directly, or to connect them to
others who can provide such experiences. Bridges can also link students to other
resources, such as personal support, knowledge, and effective behavioral strategies
for mastering the parallel process of identity development in Stage 2. Students who
do not have such relationships, or whose relationships do not provide this bridging
function, subsequently do not have the key experiences and access to resources that
their better-connected peers may receive.
Identity development as student
The role of student, or scholar-in-training, is one of the most central roles enacted
during graduate education. Organizational newcomers must understand what others
expect of them and must have the ability to achieve those expectations in order to
perform a role adequately. This process is called role learning (Brim 1966).
Researchers suggest that role learning is paramount to effective role entry (Ashforth
2001). Role learning not only focuses on acquiring the technical skills associated with
a given role but also mastering the social, normative, organizational, and political
information associated with the role and organization (Morrison 1995). As Walker
and colleagues (2008) noted:
Subject mastery is necessary but is not in itself sufficient to the formation of scholars.
Learning to present oneself as a member of a discipline, to communicate with
colleagues, and to apply ethical standards of conduct is part and parcel of formation
(62).
Critical to role learning is social support from and interaction with peers,
mentors, family members, and friends.
Awareness of transition
Participants in our study were aware that they were transitioning from students to
scholars, but struggled with self-doubt as they attempted to balance multiple roles
simultaneously. The abrupt shift from the familiarity of the classroom and regular
interactions with community members to isolation and self-doubt can be a challenge
10 V.L. Baker and M.J. Pifer
for doctoral students during Stage 2. Students felt confident in the abilities and
knowledge they had gained during Stage 1; however, they relied on advanced
members of the community to provide support and advice as they engaged in parallel
identity development as both student and scholar. Interacting with faculty and
advanced students who modeled behavior allowed students to feel more comfortable
asking questions. One student told us, I dont know what I dont know, so its not
always easy to ask the right questions. Having a few close people you can trust and
rely on is so important. Students peers, those also working through the transition to
independent scholars, also served as important sources of support. As one student
commented, Its nice to have folks that are in the trenches with you, to share stories
and frustrations. Relationships outside of the academic community also helped
students maintain balance and perspective on the experience as a whole. Many
students described family members and close friends as cheerleaders or their
biggest fans. Such relationships helped students talk through the challenges they
were facing in a non-threatening, low-stakes environment, allowing them to rely on
comfortable, long-standing relationships for support.
Alternatively, a lack of close relationships to rely on during this time can cause
fear and undue stress for students who are engaged in an already stressful process.
When students do not have individuals to rely on, they can become unclear of the
expectations associated with this stage, which can make the process of identity
development as a student and scholar-in-training difficult to manage. As one student
asked, If [the faculty] arent going to invest in me, who will? Furthermore, when
students see others getting support and guidance that they do not think they have
received, resentment can often occur. Students feelings that they were not getting the
same level or kinds of support as their peers were often a major source of tension for
participants.
Impression management
Once students complete course work and pass comprehensive or qualifying exams,
they often experience a sense of accomplishment. As one student noted, I feel one
step closer to achieving my goal, and I do feel I have learned a lot these past two
years. While students noticed the increased knowledge and ability to have real
conversations with faculty, issues of impression management also arose. Participants
talked about not wanting to embarrass themselves in front of faculty, avoiding
meetings with their advisors until they had clear ideas about their research, for
example. Advanced students in the program helped participants manage faculty
members impressions of their progress and abilities, providing advice about who to
go to for particular issues, how to approach faculty, and who to avoid in some
instances. The students who had relationships with advanced students relied on them
for this type of advice, and were subsequently more comfortable interacting with
faculty and presenting themselves as members of the academic community.
We observed two negative outcomes related to a lack of relationships or
ineffective relationships in terms of dealing with impression management issues.
First, when students lacked colleagues to approach regarding how to interact with
faculty, they rarely interacted with faculty to share ideas or create opportunities for
intellectual discourse. Rather, students worked alone, often heightening their feelings
of isolation, loneliness, and self doubt. Second, when relationships provided bad
Studies in Continuing Education 11
advice in terms of managing impressions, students reputations were damaged and
their self-confidence and willingness to engage were negatively affected. One student
in particular received misguided advice about priorities between the classroom and
research. The advisor she spoke with encouraged the student to focus on research,
while faculty members who taught seminars urged her to spend more time on her
coursework. She followed the advice of her advisor, and she failed to gain the support
of other departmental faculty as a result. She was later counseled out of the program.
Networking and collaboration
During Stage 2, students began to understand the importance of networking and
building collaborations, mostly within their academic programs or departments, but
also within the broader disciplinary community as well. Many of the students in our
study were preparing to present their work at professional conferences and relied on
their peers for advice about this important yet often intimidating experience.
Participants said that these relationships, and the advice gleaned from them, further
highlighted just how critical these relationships were and would continue to be. The
students who were able to forge those connections with faculty, advanced students,
and peers reaped the benefits. Students began working on new projects that resulted
in co-authorship opportunities, important for developing ones curriculum vitae.
These opportunities, such as seeing a project through from inception to publication,
also provided first-hand knowledge about the faculty career. The ability to network
and be an effective collaborator is a skill that is necessary for academics in any field
and institution type. When students are afforded the opportunity to begin honing
these skills as part of the identity development process while enrolled in graduate
study, they are likely to have increased confidence and success during their early
career stages.
The students in our study who did not realize the importance of networking and
collaboration, or lacked the confidence to engage in these activities, suffered as a
result, and had a more difficult time making that transition from student to scholar.
They seemed to be waiting for someone else to assign them to a project or otherwise
direct their efforts and progress. Efficacy and initiative are critical to making the
transition from student to scholar, and engaging in collaborations with individuals in
the community are key for making this transition effectively.
Identity development as scholar
The topic of identity development and preparation for academic practice during
doctoral study is an important one that is gaining attention from researchers and
practitioners. For example, sessions at the most recent annual meeting of the
Association for the Study of Higher Education highlighted the issue as one that is
paramount to understanding preparation for the professoriate. While students
engaged in Stage 2 were aware of the transition and their own efforts to manage it
successfully, it was the students who had recently completed Stage 2 who were able to
reflect on their experiences and provide important insight into their preparation as
scholars. Their ability to clearly articulate their own identity development in these
ways revealed valuable insights into the process of becoming a scholar that occurs in
Stage 2.
12 V.L. Baker and M.J. Pifer
Long-term vs. short-term planning
As students described their experiences in Stage 1, they often focused on short-term
goals. They scheduled their life based on assignment due dates and exam dates, the
beginning and end of semesters, and the timing and completion of program
milestones. Once students entered Stage 2, however, the remaining program
milestones were the dissertation proposal and dissertation, which have no due dates
(candidacy exams were completed during Stage 1 for the programs we explored).
In the process of working on these milestones, students began shifting from a short-
term focus to thinking long-term (e.g., graduation and academic employment).
Students began to develop the requisite skills as they transitioned from student to
scholar during Stage 2 and prepared for the realities of the academic career. They
noticed this shift in thinking within themselves, as well as the role of relationships in
facilitating this shift. Faculty, for example, helped students develop and hone
dissertation ideas that would establish clear research agendas. Collaborations with
faculty, advanced students, and peers led to publications and working papers that
were crucial to participants marketability and future success in their pursuit of
tenure. Relationships outside of the community, particularly those including family
responsibilities, were also key to influencing this shift in thinking. Many participants
in our study expressed feeling pressure to think beyond their doctoral studies and
seriously plan for life after graduation.
Strategic relationship choices
While all students discussed the importance of networking and engaging in
collaborations, the students who had recently completed Stage 2 spoke of a
particular need to be strategic in terms of relationship choices. This strategic focus
connected to the shift from short-term to long-term thinking as students dealt with
job placement and publication concerns. In order to develop solid research agendas,
students discussed the need to network with leaders in their respective fields and
forge collaborations with scholars who conducted research in their areas of interest.
Similarly, a few students also told us that collaborating with assistant professors was
a good strategy in that they were [more] motivated to get published than senior
faculty given the pressures for promotion and tenure. Many students also discussed
strategic approaches to selecting dissertation committee members. One student
selected a committee member not because of her reputation for being supportive or
developmental with students (in fact, she had the opposite reputation), but because
symbolically her lack of involvement (e.g., membership on the committee) could be a
negative signal as the student entered the job market.
Realistic previews of faculty career
Besides the pay, I am doing exactly what I will be expected to do once I become a
faculty member. This quote expresses a statement we heard from several students
who had recently completed Stage 2. Reflecting upon that stage, participants
emphasized their identities as scholars. Faculty relationships were particularly
important at this stage in terms of providing honest assessments of the academic
career. As one student noted, My advisor told me the good, the bad, and the ugly
Studies in Continuing Education 13
about this profession. . .and despite that, I still think I am interested in becoming a
faculty member. Students were able to observe junior faculty on the tenure clock and
could see the similarities to life as a graduate student and the associated expectations.
Senior faculty members offered perspective and shared war stories of the trials and
tribulations they faced while working through promotion and tenure. Personal
relationships were also important in terms of ensuring balance; in some cases, such
relationships forced balance and a recommitment to life beyond the academy. For
example, one participant described how her relationships with both her advisor and
her husband influenced her goals in Stage 2. She said:
Professionally, as well as personally, [my advisor] knew that my husband and I would
like to leave sooner rather than l
