Reflect on the assigned reading Reflect on the assigned readings for the week. Identify what you thought was the most important concept(s), method(s) -

Reflect on the assigned reading
Reflect on the assigned readings for the week. Identify what you thought was the most important concept(s), method(s), term(s), and/or any other thing that you felt was worthy of your understanding.

Also, provide a graduate-level response to each of the following questions:

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Reflect on the assigned reading Reflect on the assigned readings for the week. Identify what you thought was the most important concept(s), method(s)

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You have recently been promoted to district manager of a large scale restaurant chain which specializes in affordable meals in a pleasant environment. In accordance with management objectives, you are responsible for increasing sales of appetizers by 20 percent by the next quarter for the 15 locations in your area. Keeping channel richness in mind, how will you make contact with the restaurant employees to facilitate the sales increase?
While it is popular today to ascribe all successes to the concept of leadership, much of an organization’s success or failure is due to factors outside the influence of leadership. Based on what you have studied, what do you see as the true value of leadership?
Respond to the post of at least two peers, using 100 words minimum each.

[Your initial post should be based upon the assigned reading for the week, so the textbook should be a source listed in your reference section and cited within the body of the text. Other sources are not required but feel free to use them if they aid in your discussion].

[Your initial post should be at least 450+ words and in APA format (including Times New Roman with font size 12 and double spaced). Post the actual body of your paper in the discussion thread then attach a Word version of the paper for APA review].

[Your initial posting should be completed by Thursday at 11:59 p.m. EST. All peer replies must be completed by Sunday at 11:59 p.m. EST].

[Your post must be substantive and demonstrate insight gained from the course material. A peer response such as I agree with her, or I liked what he said about that is not considered substantive and will not be counted for course credit. A blank post just to review other submissions will not be tolerated].

Essentials of Organizational Behavior
Fourteenth Edition
Chapter 11
Communication

After studying this chapter you should be able to:
Describe the functions and processes of communication.
Contrast downward, upward, and lateral communication through small-group networks and the grapevine
Contrast oral, written, and nonverbal communication.
Describe how channel richness underlies the choice of communication channel.
Differentiate between automatic and controlled processing of persuasive messages.
Identify common barriers to effective communication.
Discuss how to overcome the potential problems of cross-cultural communication.

Functions of Communication
Managing behavior
Feedback
Emotional sharing
Persuasion
Information exchange

Communication serves five major functions within a group or organization. Almost every communication interaction that takes place performs one or more of these interactions. Keep in mind that none of the five is more important than any of the others.
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The Communication Process

This graph outlines the communication process between the sender and the receiver. The sender takes the message to be sent and encodes it, either through verbal or written methods. The message is passed through the determined channel, and then it is handed off to the receiver, who receives the message and decodes it. The process is hindered by noise or communication barriers such as the perceived message. Feedback is the check on how successful the sender was in passing the correct message to the receiver.
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Channels of Communication
Formal
Path follows the authority chain
Messages relate to professional activities
Informal
Spontaneous channels from individual choice
Messages often personal or social

There are a few different channels of communication in the workplace. The first type is formal channels. These channels transmit messages that are related to the professional activities of the members, such as email, memos, and planned speeches. The second type is informal channels, used to transmit personal or social messages. Informal channels are more spontaneous in nature and a result of individual choices such as whom you eat lunch with.
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Direction of Communication
Upward
Downward
Lateral

In an organization, communication flows in three different directions. It can flow downward from the top management to people in lower levels of the organization. It can flow up from workers on the ground floor to the CEO. Or it can flow between or within departments in a lateral movement.
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Manager

Executive

Manager

Employee

Manager

Downward Communication
Communication that flows from one level to a lower level
One-way communication
Managers explain why a decision was made but do not solicit advice or opinions of employees

Communication that flows from one level of a group or organization to a lower level is downward communication. Managers using this one-way communication explain why decisions are made, but they dont solicit advice or opinions from employees. This can be problematic because while employees are more committed to decisions when they understand why they are made, the organization ignores potentially valuable information from employees.
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Upward Communication
Communication that flows to a higher level
Keeps managers aware of how employees feel about their jobs, coworkers, and the organization

To engage in effective upward communication, try to communicate in headlines, support your headlines with actionable items, and prepare an agenda to make sure you use your bosss attention well.
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Lateral Communication
Communication that occurs between members of a work group, members at the same level in separate work groups, or any other horizontally equivalent workers
Saves time and facilitates coordination

Some lateral relationships are formally sanctioned. More often, they are informally created to short-circuit the vertical hierarchy and expedite action.
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Formal Small-Group Networks

In an organizational context, communication is commonly broken down into three formal small-group networks.

The chain is a very formal and rigid chain of command. Employees know who the next person in the chain is and that is where they give and get their information.

The wheel is a network where there is a central figure who controls all the communication. This type of group requires a very strong leader who can communicate effectively.

The all-channel network is a much more fluid arrangement where all group members communicate actively with each other and there is no formal channel or single person. This works best in a situation such as a self-managed team.
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Effectiveness Criteria

The effectiveness of each network depends on the dependent variable that concerns you.
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The Grapevine
Informal communication network
Word-of-mouth

The grapevine is a common network that has been shown to be an effective mode of communication. Typically, the grapevine is not controlled by management nor do they feed it information. However, employees see it as a very believable and reliable form of communication. The grapevine has no formal purpose. It is mainly there to serve the self-interests of those who use it, developing from a need for these individuals to get more information about an important but ambiguous situation. The grapevine can be a way to receive information about the situation and reduce anxiety as well as fill a social need to connect.
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Modes of Communication
Three modes of communication
Oral
Written
Nonverbal

As we looked at earlier, communication can move through different channels and take on different forms.
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Oral Communication
Advantages
Speed
Feedback
Simple to correct
Disadvantages
Potential for distorted message when passed through a number of people

One communication channel is oral communication or the spoken word. This form of communication is quick, and there is immediate feedback; the disadvantage is that the message can be distorted based on the sender and the receiver.
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Written Communication
Any method that conveys written words or symbols
Letters
E-mail
Instant messaging
Organizational periodicals

Letters, e-mail, instant messaging, text messaging, social media, and blogs.
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Nonverbal Communication
Body language conveys
The extent of affinity for another
The relative perceived status between a sender and receiver
Meaning changes with
Intonation
Facial expression
Physical distance

Nonverbal communication is another channel often used in organizations. This can be a nod, a look, or the crossing of arms. It supports other channels of communication and helps to express emotions and feelings. However, it is often ridden with misperception and can greatly influence the receivers interpretation of the message.

There are many different types of nonverbal communication that send a lot of messages. Body movement is a common method. Tapping your fingers, for example, can show that you are impatient or nervous. The way you emphasize words can change the way the receiver perceives the message. Your facial expressions can show emotion and express how you feel about an assignment or task. Also, the distance placed between the sender and receiver can express whether you are interested in the project or if you feel more powerful than the other person. This will vary by cultural norms.
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Channel Richness

Channels differ in their capacity to convey information. Some are rich, in that they can handle multiple cues simultaneously, facilitate rapid feedback, and be very personal. Others are lean, in that they score low on these factors. Face-to-face communication scores highest in channel richness because it transmits the most information per communication episode.
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Choosing Communication Method
Channel choice depends on whether the message is routine
Oral communication
Written communication
Nonverbal communication

Non-routine messages are likely to be complicated and have the potential for misunderstanding. Managers can communicate effectively only by choosing rich channels.
Security is a big concern for companies with private or proprietary information about clients, customers, and employees, especially when cloud-based electronic data storage is used. The use of this type of storage is likely to increase, so companies will probably continue to monitor Internet use, emails, and so forth. By engaging employees in creating security policies, companies can reduce anxiety over these monitoring processes.
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Choosing Oral Communication
Use of oral communication when gauging the receivers receptivity is important
But consider:
The receivers preference
Pace of work environment
Your speaking ability

Whenever you need to gauge the receivers receptivity, oral communication face-to-face meetings, telephone calls, video conferencing is usually the better choice.
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Choosing Written Communication
Written communication:
Provides a tangible and verifiable record that can be stored for an indefinite period of time
Message is physically available for later reference
Messages are more likely to be well thought-out, logical, and clear
Grammar mistakes can be problematic

Written communication is a channel that is tangible and easy to go back to verify. Often when people put down their thoughts and ideas in written format, they are more logical and clear. However, written communication is more time consuming, doesnt provide immediate feedback, and might not even be read.
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Persuasive Communication
Automatic processing: superficial consideration of evidence and information making use of heuristics
Takes little time and minimal effort
Easy to be fooled
Controlled processing: detailed consideration of evidence and information relying on facts, figures, and logic
Requires effort and energy
Less likely to be fooled

We process information in two ways: automatic and controlled.
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Automatic versus Controlled Processing
The choice of processing depends on:
Interest level
Prior knowledge
Personality
Message characteristics

Which type of processing will be used? It depends on interest level, prior knowledge, personality, and message characteristics.

When people are very interested in the outcome of a decision, theyre more likely to process information carefully.
People who are very well informed about a subject area are more likely to use controlled processing.
If you have a high need for cognition, you are more likely to be persuaded by evidence and facts.
Finally, messages provided through relatively lean channels, with little opportunity for users to interact with the content of the message, encourage automatic processing.
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Barriers to Effective Communication
Filtering
Selective perception
Information overload
Emotions
Language
Silence
Communication apprehension
Lying

There are a number of barriers to effective communication that can distort the message being sent. Lets look at a few of those. Filtering is a common barrier where the sender sorts the information shared so that it will be seen as more favorable by the receiver.

Selective perception is something utilized by both the sender and the receiver. People selectively interpret what they see based on their own experiences and attitudes. This can then distort the message sent and the message received.

As we have seen in this chapter, there are many methods of communication, and they are all being used. Each receiver is in a state of information overload, where the information they are receiving exceeds their capacity to process it all. This leads to barriers to receiving the complete message.

Further complicating things are the emotions of the receiver at the time the message is received. The receivers emotions will influence their interpretation of the message.

When communicating, words will mean different things to different people and can influence the message significantly. Often this causes confusion between the sender and the receiver.

Many people are nervous about oral or written modes of communication and will not be able to clearly communicate because of their anxiety.
Finally, research shows that many people lie, and that the frequency of the lies combined with the difficulty of detecting exactly when its occurring also contribute to poor communication.
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Cultural Factors
Cross-cultural communication barriers
Semantics
Word connotations
Tone differences
Differences in perception
Cultural context
High context culture
Low context culture

Communication, as we have seen, can be difficult to do effectively. Cross-cultural factors can increase that difficulty. So it is important for managers to understand the culture in which they are working. They should be careful of the words they use to make sure they are translatable and dont hold double meanings. They need to understand how their tone, body language, or perceptions will differ based on culture.

Cross-cultural communication barriers include:
Semantics words mean different things to different people
Word connotations words imply different things in different languages
Tone differences in some cultures tone changes depending on context
Differences in perception different world views

Context is very important to understanding what is being communicated. In low-context cultures, people tend to rely more on words, while high-context cultures will rely more on the whole situation.
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A Cultural Guide
Know yourself.
Foster a climate of mutual respect, fairness, and democracy.
State facts, not your interpretation.
Consider the other persons point of view.
Proactively maintain the identity of the group.

When communicating with people from a different culture, follow these suggestions to reduce misinterpretations.
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Implications for Managers
Remember that your communication mode will partly determine your communication effectiveness.
Obtain feedback from your employees to make certain your messages are understood.
Remember that written communication creates more misunderstandings than oral communication.
Make sure you use communication strategies appropriate to your audience and the type of message youre sending.
Keep in mind communication barriers such as gender and culture.

In summary, good communication will always reduce uncertainty and beats out ambiguity every time. Communication has a better chance of succeeding if the right channel is used, the receiver is a good listener, and feedback is utilized. It is important to remember that even though electronic communication is quicker and easier to use, it can also raise the potential for misunderstanding. Finally, keep in mind that in different cultural contexts things have different meanings, and there are a lot of barriers to overcome for effective communication. Do your homework, and do not rush to conclusions.
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Copyright 2018, 2016, 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Essentials of Organizational Behavior
Fourteenth Edition
Chapter 12
Leadership

After studying this chapter you should be able to:
Summarize the conclusions of trait theories of leadership.
Identify the central tenets and main limitations of behavioral theories.
Contrast contingency theories of leadership.
Describe the contemporary theories of leadership and their relationship to foundational theories.
Discuss the roles of leaders in creating ethical organizations.
Describe how leaders can have a positive impact on their organizations through building trust and mentoring.
Identify the challenges to our understanding of leadership.

What Is Leadership?
Leadership: The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or a set of goals
Trait theories of leadership: focus on personal qualities and characteristics
Leadership emergence
Leadership effectiveness

Leadership is the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals.
The trait theories of leadership focus on personal qualities like those in the Big Five and characteristics that predict two distinct outcomes: leadership emergence and leadership effectiveness.
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Trait Theories of Leadership
Two conclusions:
Traits can predict leadership
Traits do a better job predicting the emergence of leaders and the appearance of leadership than distinguishing between effective and ineffective leaders

The fact that an individual exhibits the right traits and that others consider him a leader does not necessarily mean he will be an effective leader who is successful at getting the group to achieve its goals.
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Personality Traits and Leadership
Big Five Traits
Extraversion has strongest relation to leadership
Conscientiousness and openness to experience also strongly relate to leadership
Agreeableness and emotional stability are not correlated with leadership
Dark Side Traits
Normative scores on Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy are optimal
Emotional intelligence
EI contributes to emergence of leaders

Some essential leadership traits include extraversion, conscientiousness, openness, and agreeableness. Research shows that the Dark Side personality traits of Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy are not all bad for leadership. Higher scores on Dark Side traits and emotional stability can contribute to the emergence of leadership. Finally, emotional intelligence or EI has been linked with leadership effectiveness, especially with regard to empathy, a core component of EI. Leaders with empathy are able to sense others needs, listen to their followers, and read the reactions of others.
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Behavioral Theories
Behavioral theories of leadership: we can determine leadership effectiveness by leader behavior, and perhaps train people to be leaders
The Ohio State Studies

The behavioral theories of leadership focus on the premise that behaviors can be taught and traits cannot, so leaders are trained, not born.
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Ohio State Studies
Attempts to organize work, work relationships, and goals
Concern for followers comfort, well-being, status, and satisfaction

A key study in the area of behavioral leadership advanced our understanding of the theory. The research was done at the Ohio State University. Researchers looked at important dimensions of leadership behavior and began with over 1,000 dimensions. In the end, the Ohio State studies were able to narrow it down to two dimensions initiating structure and consideration.

Initiating structure is when the leader is able to define and structure their role and that of their employees to work toward the goals of the organization. Consideration is the ability of the leader to gain the trust and respect of their followers and to help them feel appreciated for what they do. Both behaviors have proven to be very important in an effective leader.
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Initiating Structure

Consideration

Cultural Differences
GLOBE Leadership Project Results:
Brazil Leaders are participative and humane
France Leaders are bureaucratic, task oriented, and autocratic
China Initiating structure and consideration important: status differences but participation valued

The GLOBE study suggests that there are differences across cultures in the preference for initiating structure and consideration.
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Contingency Theories
Fiedler leadership model: Effective group performance depends on the proper match between the leaders style and the degree to which the situation gives the leader control

In this theory, Fielder is trying to match the leader to the context. He proposes that leadership style is fixed. So, if the situation demands a charismatic leader and your current leader does not exhibit that style, you need to change leaders.
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Fiedler Leadership Model
Least-Preferred Co-worker (LPC) determines leadership style (fixed trait)
Relationship oriented
Task oriented
Match leaders style with degree of situational control
Leader-member relations
Task structure
Position power

Leadership style can be determined by taking the LPC questionnaire (least preferred co-worker).

After the leadership style is determined you can match the leader to the situation. There are three dimensions to finding a successful match. The first situational factor is the leader-member relationship; this ties back to our behavioral studies by looking at the degree of trust and respect employees have for the leader. The second factor is the amount of structure that is embedded in job assignments. The last factor is the amount of influence the leader has over decisions that represent power such as hiring, firing, and rewards.

In Fiedlers model, you need to find a leader to fit the situation or change the situation to fit the leader in order to achieve effective leadership for the organization.
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Matching Leaders to Situations

This graph helps to visually determine the situational factors and what type of leader would succeed in this situation. There are eight possible situations in which leaders can find themselves. By matching their LPC score with these eight different situations a leader can see where they will be most effective. For example, categories four through six would be better suited to relationship-oriented leaders because Fielder proposes that they perform best in moderately favorable situations.
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Situational Leadership Theory
Situational leadership theory (SLT): successful leadership depends on selecting the right leadership style, contingent on the followers readiness to accomplish a task
Unable and unwilling
Unable but willing
Able but unwilling
Able and willing

SLT acknowledges the importance of followers and builds on the logic that leaders can compensate for their limited ability and motivation.
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PathGoal Theory
Pathgoal theory: its the leaders job to provide followers with information, support, or other resources necessary to achieve goals
Directive leadership yields greater satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous or stressful
Supportive leadership results in high performance and satisfaction when tasks are structured
Directive leadership is perceived as redundant by employees with high ability or experience

Effective leaders clarify followers paths to their work goals and make the journey easier by reducing roadblocks.

Directive or supportive leadership does matter to followers performance, and leaders need to be aware of their important facilitating role.

The effectiveness of leaders depends to a large degree on their followers.
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Leader-Participation Model
Leader-participation model: provides a set of rules to determine the form and amount of participative decision making in different situations

The way the leader makes decisions is as important as what he or she decides. Leader behavior must adjust to reflect the task structure.
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Leader-Member Exchange
Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory: supports leaders creation of ingroups and outgroups
Subordinates with ingroup status will likely have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction

LMX argues that leaders, because of time pressures, tend to establish special relationships with a small group of followers who then become their ingroup. In this capacity, they enjoy a disproportionate share of the leaders attention, greater trust, and special privileges.
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LMX Theory

Research shows that ingroup members have demographic, attitude, and personality characteristics similar to those of their leaders or a higher level of competence than outgroup members.
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Charismatic Leadership
Charismatic leadership theory: Attributions of heroic leadership abilities when followers observe certain behaviors
Vision and articulation
Personal risk taking
Sensitivity toward followers
Unconventional behaviors

Charisma comes from the Greek word meaning gift. When talking about a charismatic leader, one refers to someone with certain gifts or abilities. A charismatic leader will often gain followers through personality rather than through power or authority.

There are four key characteristics that are associated with a charismatic leader. The leader must have vision, expressed as an idealized goal. The leader must be willing to take on high personal risk and engage in self-sacrifice to achieve the vision. In doing so, the leader needs to remain sensitive to the feelings and needs of their followers. Throughout the process, the leader may be engaging in behaviors that are perceived as counter to norms, thereby extraordinary.
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Charismatic Leaders: Born or Made?
Charisma is partially attributed to genetics and partially to training and experience
Developing an aura of charisma:
Be optimistic
Be passionately enthusiastic
Communicate with body, not just words
Draw others in inspire others
Tap into emotions bring out the potential in others

The charismatic traits are often traits that a leader is born with, thus continuing the debate on whether leaders are born or developed.

In reality it is a mix of genetics, training, and experience. Charisma can be created. One way is to develop an aura of charisma by being optimistic, passionately enthusiastic, and to communicating with behaviors and words. A leader can also create charisma by drawing in others through inspiration, as well as by tapping into the emotions of individuals to bring out their potential.
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How Charismatic Leaders Influence Followers
Articulate an appealing vision
Communicate a new set of values
Model behaviors for those values
Express dramatic behavior

Evidence shows a four-step process can help the charismatic leader utilize their characteristics to influence their followers. First, the leader articulates a long-term strategy for achieving a goal. This strategy should fit the vision and uniqueness of the organization. Next, the leader needs to formalize that vision by creating a vision statement. Charismatic leaders will often use this statement to reinforce the goal and purpose of the organization. This vision is communicated in a way that expresses the leaders excitement and commitment to the goal.

Next, the leader will use his words and actions to communicate a new set of values for the followers to imitate. Then the charismatic leader will try to find behaviors that demonstrate their commitment to the vision. They will choose behaviors that will help followers catch the emotions the leader is conveying and help achieve buy-in from the followers.

Finally, the charismatic leader engages in emotion-inducing and often unconventional behavior to demonstrate courage and conviction about the vision, in order to, help followers catch the vision.
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Charisma and Situational Dependency
Charisma is strongly correlated to high performance and satisfaction
Best used when
Environment is uncertain or stressful
Ideology is involved
Most closely associated with upper-level executives
People are most receptive to charisma when there is a crisis

Charismatic leaders have been shown to be effective but it often depends on the context. This leadership style works best in

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