Journal due in 16 hours Prenatal Development With the evolution of Google, accessible information, the study of genetics, prenatal tests, social medi -

Journal due in 16 hours
Prenatal Development
With the evolution of Google, accessible information, the study of genetics, prenatal tests, social media, and many other sources of information for new parents, the process of preparing for a healthy baby can be overwhelming.
For this first journal assignment, reflect on the substance and theoretical foundation of what you have learned this week about prenatal development. Then write a reflective essay that addresses the following:

Comment on how this weeks learning and materials compliment, oppose, and/or affect change in your positions and attitudes on the relevant subject matter.
From this reflection, formulate and articulate three pieces of advice to help expecting parents ensure healthy development of their baby.
Analyze how your recommendations are grounded in relevant theory.
Explain how a decision to ground your recommendations in a different theoretical framework might have affected your decisions and actions.
Based on your response to the previous question, describe what you see as the proper or optimal way to think about the relationship between theory and practice.
Explain how the recommendations you selected help to ensure healthy development.
Explain how ethical concerns might arise related to things such as prenatal tests and predictions.

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Journal due in 16 hours Prenatal Development With the evolution of Google, accessible information, the study of genetics, prenatal tests, social medi

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Be sure to consider what you read about in Chapters 1 and 2 of the course textbook relating to developmental theory and the evaluation of research evidence for claims.

Required Text
You can find more helpful items for Constellation at the following site: https://content.rockies.edu/support/tutorials/
Constellation: Mossler, R. A., & Ziegler, M. (2016). Understanding Development: A Lifespan Perspective. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc

1The Study of Lifespan Development

Hero Images Inc./Hero Images/Superstock

Learning Objectives

After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

Define the lifespan perspective and summarize its primary characteristics.

Distinguish between developmental domains and provide examples of overlapping characteristics.

Describe nine stages of human development.

Analyze key issues in the study of lifespan development.

Identify the different contextual factors in lifespan development.

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Prologue

Chapter Outline

Prologue

1.1 The Lifespan Perspective
Characteristics of the Lifespan Perspective

1.2 Topical Areas in Lifespan Development
Physical Development
Cognitive Development
Psychosocial Development

1.3 Stages of Development

1.4 Key Issues in the Study of Lifespan Development
Continuous Versus Discontinuous Development
Nature and Nurture

1.5 Contextual Factors in Lifespan Development
Sex and Gender
Peer Groups
Race, Ethnicity, and Culture
Socioeconomic Status

Summary & Resources

Prologue
Satchel Paige, a famous American baseball player, never admitted to the day or year of his
birth. When reporters inquired about his age, Paige would often turn the question around:
How old would you be if you didnt know how old you was? And because Paige displayed
atypical abilities for someone of the various chronological ages that he did report, his actual
age was a frequent source of debate.

So how old would you be if you didnt know the year of your birth? How would you determine
if a person is an adult, entering middle age, or simply old? Other than chronological mark-
ers, there are no definitive indicators of age. There are some 50-year-olds who seem young
and some who seem old. There are some 80-year-olds who are active, spry, and enjoying
life and others who are incapacitated, depressed, or show characteristics of the stereotypical
curmudgeon. There are some 25-year-olds who have a career and family and others who have
barely decided on a future course for their lives. Such differences lead to a number of ques-
tions about human development:

How old is somebody who is old?
At what age should children begin formal school?
When does puberty begin? Adolescence?
Why are some people more independent than others, and how does that characteris-

tic affect social, economic, and educational opportunities?
Does having a family or a job demonstrate emotional maturity?

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Section 1.1 The Lifespan Perspective

Is retirement a distinct stage of life?
If you could choose, how long would you want to live? Why?

This list identifies just a few of the questions that we might ask when studying the course of
human development. If you think about it carefully, the answer to each of these questions is,
It depends. For example, school readiness among children varies tremendously, both physi-
cally and psychologically; similarly, some people in their 20s act more like carefree teenagers
and others act the part of responsible adults.

There are many different ways to look at growth and development. Satchel Paige had it right
when he implied that it is not enough to describe aging as a simple series of chronological
numbers. Instead, aging is best viewed as a multifaceted process. The goal of this text is to
examine the various processes and how we think they occur.

1.1 The Lifespan Perspective
Lifespan development, or what the American Psychological Association (APA) refers to as
developmental psychology, is the study of human growth, stability, and change. This field of
study is often divided into subcategories like child development, early adulthood, and
aging. The traditional view of development emphasized the patterns of growth during
childhood and adolescence, stability during early adulthood, and decline in the later years.
However, contemporary developmentalists have largely rejected this notion. Instead, devel-
opmentalists embrace the idea that development should be studied as a function of growth,
stability, and change, not simply a matter of growth and decline. This lifespan perspective
acknowledges that although development is often systematic and predictable, there are dif-
ferent kinds of gains and losses for each individual at any particular time. For instance, a
person who is not introduced to specialized physical skills during childhood, like dribbling
a soccer ball or playing a musical instrument, is unlikely as an adult to ever have elite skills
in those areas, even if the person was born with exceptional potential. Rather than explor-
ing a decline in an ability that never existed, developmentalists focus on how variations in
perception, experiences, and thoughts influence behavior. Likewise, lifespan researchers also
explore factors that empower us to reach goals and to avoid dysfunctional outcomes as we
age (Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 1998).

Characteristics of the Lifespan Perspective
The study of development attempts to find explanations for both the similarities and the dif-
ferences in feelings, thoughts, and behaviors that occur between birth and the end of life,
from the womb to the tomb. Dramatic changes occur as infants shift from being completely
dependent on others to being self-reliant adults. But adults may then become less autono-
mous in old age as they revert to some form of dependence. The study of the lifespan also
includes genetics and the prenatal (before birth) period, as these factors have a strong influ-
ence on later development.

We will begin by laying some groundwork for how we view lifespan development. There are
several theoretical propositions that form a basis for the lifespan perspective, summarized
in Table 1.1 at the end of this section (Baltes, 1987). The course of individual development is
directed by these guiding principles.

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Section 1.1 The Lifespan Perspective

Development Is a Lifelong
Process
It is unfitting to adopt the idea that
individuals reach some peak kind
of performancesay, during early
adulthoodand then simply decline.
People never stop developing, no mat-
ter how old they are. Whether we look
at how babies bond to their primary
caregivers, teenagers join cliques,
young adults find intimate partners,
or retirees consciously filter out less
desirable social activities, develop-
ment is viewed as a dynamic, lifelong
process.

Development Is Multidirectional
The same aspect of development can change in more than one way. For example, one type
of intelligence, such as how fast an individual can complete a puzzle that has multiple visual
elements, begins to decline sometime after the age of 30 (as described in Chapter 9). But
another type of intelligence that relies on rote learning and experience, such as completing
a crossword puzzle, increases after the age of 30. In this comparison, overall intelligence is
multidirectional; there are both advances and declines associated with aging.

Development Is a Balance Between Gains and Losses
Psychologists have expanded the lifespan model to include the idea that developmental
change involves more than just progress and gains; in addition, they determine that aging does
not mean declining. Instead, development is a balance between gains and losseschanges
involve both benefits and costs. For example, a young couple may have a child (gain) but lose
some of their independence (loss). (Conversely, a couple may gain financially by choosing to
remain childless but potentially lose some social opportunities.) Or grandparents, compared
to their abilities during early adulthood, may not be able to play as actively with their grand-
children (loss), but they may have comparatively more time to be with grandchildren (gain).

Development Is Plastic
Abilities are not wholly predetermined at birth. While development is guided in part by biol-
ogy and genetics, the concept of plasticity reminds us that possible outcomes are wide-ranging
and events do not shape every person the same way. Musical talents, the regulation of emo-
tions, writing, socialization skills, athleticism, and other abilities can be fostered and lead to
a wide range of outcomes, depending upon individual opportunity, support, and motivation.
For example, we do not hear stories of natural athletes who never played on an official court
or field, who never practice, yet still know how to play at a professional level. But there are
many stories of professional athletes who gain success by working harder than their peers.

iStock/Thinkstock

The study of lifespan development covers topics
from the prenatal period to death.

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Section 1.1 The Lifespan Perspective

Development Is Historically Embedded
People cannot be separated from their historical and cultural contexts; this is a concept
referred to as historical embeddedness. Age-related development is influenced by the kind
of sociocultural conditions that exist in a given historical period and how these conditions
evolve over time. Because the cultural climate has changed substantially, todays young chil-
dren, recent high school graduates, middle-age mothers, minorities, disabled, and others have
different developmental pathways than generations ago, even though comparison groups
might be the same age.

Development Is Contextual
Development occurs within certain settings, or contexts. Three contextual systems work
together to influence development: normative age-graded, normative history-graded, and
nonnormative influences. Normative age-graded influences include contextual changes
that are based on biological, psychological, social, or cultural forces that are shared by most
people of the same age. For instance, age and cultural expectations influence expectations of
kindergarten, the meaning of high school graduation, the social excitement of turning 21, the
experience of menopause, and what it means to retire.

Sometimes there are distinct cultural influences that affect the psychological development of
entire groups of individuals, or cohorts. These normative history-graded influences may
provide an identity to an entire generation, like Baby Boomers (those born between 1945
and the early 1960s), Generation X (those born after the Baby Boomers in the early 1960s and
until the later 1970s), or the Millennial Generation (also called Generation Y, born between
the late 1970s and 2000). Individuals raised during the Arab Spring, a famine in Africa, or
under repressive governments also share particular cultural and historical experiences. Some
cohorts are more or less likely than others to have access to technology, or experience the
effects of malnutrition, war, disease, or economic downturn.

Every individual also has unique, unpredictable experiences that affect personal develop-
ment. These are called nonnormative influences because they do not fit any kind of standard
cohort or standard of development. Examples might include moving in with grandparents
after a family home is destroyed, unexpectedly becoming a teenage parent, having a spouse
die at an early age, or winning the lottery. These unique events have the potential to influence
the trajectory of development.

Development Is Multidisciplinary
There are no universal models that can accurately forecast how a person will grow. Academic
contributions come from disciplines other than psychology and development, including
health care, public policy, community outreach, sociology, anthropology, social work, educa-
tion, neuroscience, and economics, to name a few. In this way, the study of the lifespan is
multidisciplinary.

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Section 1.1 The Lifespan Perspective

Table 1.1: Guiding principles in the study of lifespan development

Concepts Principles

Development is lifelong process Every age period is important in understanding the
nature of development. During all stages of the life-
span, both cumulative and novel events (biological and
experiential) contribute to developmental change.

Development is multidirectional No single direction of change dominates. At any point
in time, some systems show increases and others show
decreases. Both growth and decline are dynamic and
continuous among multiple dimensions and vary by
categories of behavior.

Development is a balance between gain and loss Throughout the lifespan, there is continuous interplay
between gain and loss. Development is accompanied
by both growth and decline in any particular stage.

Development is plastic There is considerable individual capacity for change.
Depending on a persons life conditions and experi-
ences, development is modified in response to environ-
mental conditions.

Development is historically embedded Lifespan development can vary substantially depend-
ing on historical and cultural conditions. The path of
development is markedly influenced by sociocultural
conditions that exist in a given historical period and
how they evolve over time.

Development is contextual Development can be understood as the outcome of the
interactions between biological systems and individual
and historical events. People are exposed to both group
and individual events in a dynamic world. Some influ-
ences are shared with others of the same age; some
influences are specific to a generation; other influences
are uniquely individual.

Development is multidisciplinary Multiple disciplines inform the study of development,
including psychology, sociology, biology, anthropology,
neuroscience, economics, political science, and others.

Source: Adapted from Baltes, P. B. (1987). Theoretical propositions of life-span developmental psychology: On the dynamics
between growth and decline. Developmental Psychology, 23(5), 611626. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.23.5.611 . 1987 by the
American Psychological Association. Adapted with permission.

Activity
To demonstrate the multidisciplinary study of lifespan development, go through the college
catalog and identify subject areas outside of psychology that are important to the study of
lifespan development. Then, identify one lifespan topic within that discipline.

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Section 1.2 Topical Areas in Lifespan Development

1.2 Topical Areas in Lifespan Development
To make sense of the multidisciplinary nature of lifespan development, it is important to
organize the different kinds of change into broad categories, or domains. In this section, we
explore the areas of physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development, which make up the
three overlapping domains of development. Development is also commonly organized by
age-related classifications called periods (or stages) of development, which we will discuss
in section 1.3. Though development rarely occurs in perfectly isolated categories, classifying
development into domains and periods makes the study of the lifespan more convenient and
orderly for researchers, teachers, and students.

Physical Development
Physical development is the most
noticeable kind of change. It includes
the biologically driven transitions in
height, weight, muscles, sexual devel-
opment, and perceptual abilities, such
as vision, hearing, and motor skills.
There is also physical development
that is less visible, like changes in
brain mass that are associated with
faster (and then slower) speed in pro-
cessing information. Bone growth and
deterioration, the strengthening and
weakening of heart tissues and other
organs, susceptibility to disease, and
hormonal changes are all part of the
physical domain of development. Even
if such changes are not visible, they
can be behaviorally remarkable. For
instance, hormones are involved in
basic reproduction, first leading to fer-
tility and then later preventing it; age-related diseases of the brain can cause rapid declines
in physical and intellectual abilities. We understand physical development by studying such
topics as differences exhibited by preterm infants and active versus sedentary adults.

More than the other domains, physical development depends on maturation, or the biologi-
cal unfolding of growth over time. Each individual has a schedule built into his or her genes
that controls both the timing and degree of physical growth and decline. Under ordinary con-
ditions, a person cannot be prevented from experiencing a range of predetermined physical
changes. Although maturation plays an essential role, environmental forces and individual
choices, like nutrition and exercise, also mediate physical development.

Stockbyte/Thinkstock

Physical traits like height are easy to notice, but also
changing as a body develops are the brain, bone
mass, and organ tissues.

Section Review
Provide examples that demonstrate each of the guiding principles of lifespan development.

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Section 1.2 Topical Areas in Lifespan Development

Cognitive Development
A second domain of development consists of mental activitieswhat we call cognition. The
study of cognition includes how people think, make decisions, use language, solve problems,
and pay attention to the stimuli they encounter within the environment. Cognitive develop-
ment is therefore a broad domain that refers to overall development of the mind. Cognitive
processes are intimately connected to the use of language and to gains and losses of intelli-
gence and memory. For example, compared to teenagers, older adults have a greater store of
information and therefore generally make better judgments about people, the community,
and the world. However, on average, older adults take longer to learn novel information, such
as how to use a new technology, and are more likely to forget newly learned names (Glisky,
2007; Whiting, Chenery, & Copland, 2011). As age-related diseases affect the brain, a deterio-
rating memory may even compromise self-care functions, like grooming and toileting
activities.

Like the way in which age affects memory, it is apparent that
the cognitive and physical domains often overlap. Not only do
physical changes lead to cognitive consequences (e.g., reexam-
ining capabilities as the body is declining), but the reverse is
true as well. For example, what depressed individuals think
about themselves and their condition often influences the

degree of malaise. Or consider variability in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD),
which is partially explained by expectations in cognitive tasks and how an observer defines
appropriate behavior. Relatedly, physical exertion is associated with prevention of depression,
and physical play is often a successful part of treatment for the cognitive problems associated
with ADHD (Abdollahian, Mokhber, Balaghi, & Moharrari, 2013; Blumenthal, Smith, & Hoff-
man, 2012). Moreover, research tells us that more (physical) movement in general improves
long-term cognitive function throughout the lifespan (Kirk-Sanchez & McGough, 2014; Mam-
men & Faulkner, 2013; Timmons et al., 2012).

Like physical development, there is evidence that maturation plays a significant role in cogni-
tion. For instance, all infants babble (the precursor to using recognizable words) at about 3
or 4 months of age, no matter what language or culture children are exposed to. Even deaf
babies babble, so it appears that babbling is programmed into us as a necessary physical and
cognitive preparation for speech. Psychosocial development, which we will discuss next, is
influenced by maturation as well.

Psychosocial Development
Beginning with a newborn babys temperament, or the early observable parts of personality,
we know that at least part of personality and emotional development is inborn. (Tempera-
ment is a concept that will be discussed more in Chapter 11.) Temperament includes how
infants and toddlers respond to new people (getting excited versus withdrawing) and the
amount of patience exhibited before getting frustrated. Like later personality, temperament
characteristics are somewhat consistent during childhood, and appear to be at least partly
inherited (Caspi, Roberts, & Shiner, 2005). Temperament and later personality are also linked

Critical Thinking

How might culture affect a persons
cognitive development?

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Section 1.3 Stages of Development

1.3 Stages of Development
Typically, professionals in the field of development limit their specializations to the study of
growth, stability, and change that occur in one of the three domains. There is often further
specialization within a limited age range or stage (see Figure 1.1). For instance, a psychologist
might study the cognitive changes that occur during adolescence or the changes in personality
evident during late adulthood. But it is difficult to point to any one aspect of a persons physi-
cal, cognitive, or psychosocial development and say that we know exactly why it unfolded in
a particular way. Development is best viewed as a fluid process, not one of absolutes. Even
the transitions between different stages are sometimes blurry. For instance, we know what
(physical) puberty and (psychosocial) adolescence look like, but it is difficult to identify the
exact time either one begins or ends. Other periods in life are even more difficult to identify.
Is middle age defined best by a number (i.e., chronological age), by types of relationships, or
by financial security?

to the acquisition of social skills and attitudes, as these factors are a reflection of how people
act. For example, being kind (a personality trait) is usually a better social strategy than
being mean. The degrees to which young children are content, display negative emotions
(like anger and fear), and focus their attention are all parts of personality that persist into
adolescence and adulthood (Congdon et al., 2012; Garstein, Slobodskaya, & Kinsht, 2003).
A natural leader may become impatient when others do not plan well; a natural introvert is
likely to become frustrated or anxious when there are inescapable social demands. Therefore,
differences in an individuals traits and exposure to external demands will lead to changes in
personality development that will affect outcomes, including career paths, choices for roman-
tic partners, and living arrangements in old age.

Together, these kinds of personality, emotional, and social factors make up the domain of
psychosocial development. This concentration includes the way society and culture shape
people and, in turn, the way people shape society and culture. It is difficult to separate the
parts of personality and self-image that are strictly individual choice from those that are
the result of social or cultural expectations. As people develop, their individual experiences
and thoughts incrementally modify their psychosocial characteristics. As people change,
society changes as well.

Section Review
Provide examples of processes that are representative of the three domains of development.

mos82599_01_c01_001-026.indd 9 2/11/16 8:10 AM

10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 70+

Years

Periods in Child Development

Infancy

Early childhood

Middle childhood

Adolescence

Prenatal

Early adulthood

Late
adulthood

Middle adulthood

Emerging
adulthood

Section 1.3 Stages of Development

We therefore cannot always neatly define a group of individuals by physical, mental, or psy-
chosocial characteristics. Additionally, any one period of development is usually dependent
on culture and society. For example, in the agrarian society of the United States that predated
the Industrial Revolution, life often fell into three stages: infancy, childhood, and adulthood.
Children played; adults worked and raised families. Today, many young adults who are attend-
ing school or settling into their careers delay the move to become independent. This cultural
change has prompted some to embrace the idea of a new stage called emerging adulthood
that is sandwiched between adolescence and early adulthood (Arnett, 2000).

Therefore, stages of development should not be thought of as having absolute beginnings and
endings; they should be thought of as dynamic ideas rather than limited constructs. Table
1.2 presents the most commonly recognized divisions of development among academicians.
Notice that other than the prenatal period, the stages overlap, following the lifespan view that
these are not universally defined ages, but more generally accepted group patterns. Recall
also that there are intersecting physical, cognitive, and psychosocial processes. The stages
are organized around chronological age, which, as noted in the prologue, is only one way to
view development and sometimes lacks meaning. Other forms of classification correspond to
physical maturation, cognitive change, and psychosocial experience.

Figure 1.1: Stages of development

Periods of development should not be thought of as having absolute beginnings and endings. With the
exception of the prenatal period, the periods should be conceptualized as approximate age ranges.

10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 70+

Years

Periods in Child Development

Infancy

Early childhood

Middle childhood

Adolescence

Prenatal

Early adulthood

Late
adulthood

Middle adulthood

Emerging
adulthood

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Section 1.3 Stages of Development

Table 1.2: Stages of lifespan development and their associated characteristics

Stage of life and age range Characteristics

The prenatal
period

Conception to
birth

The only period with definitive physical beginning and ending
points; the other age ranges originate from social constructs and
have become useful groupings. The prenatal period lasts from the
time of conception until birth, whether the infant is born at full term
or not.

Infancy Birth to age 2 The second year of infancy is often referred to as toddlerhood.
During infancy, there is tremendous growth in all developmental
domains. Physically, children begin to move on their own (toddle).
Cognitively, children begin to talk, and there is tremendous growth in
language comprehension. Psychosocially, children begin to engage in
independent activities and self-soothing behaviors, and they begin to
form meaningful relationships.

Early
childhood

About age 2 to
5 or 6

Commonly referred to as the preschool years in mainstream
literature and conversation. Body proportions change and children
use more coordinated movements, partly because of rapid changes
in neuron (brain) growth. Cognitively, children show great progress
in the use of words and phrases to form sentences. They also become
a bit more discerning of friendships as they spend generous amounts
of time playing if given opportunities to do so. Understanding what
different playmates can offer leads to advances in psychosocial
development.

Middle
childhood

About age 6
to 11

Generally encompasses the elementary school years. Physical and
cognitive differences among children become more noticeable.
Children are often acutely aware of the exceptional handball players,
mathematicians, and readers. Formal education allows children to
master basic language and computational skills. From a psychosocial
perspective, social comparisons begin to affect how we feel about
ourselves. Games and play become more rule oriented as morality
becomes more sophisticated.

Adolescence About age 11
to 18

Coincides with the dramatic physical changes that mark puberty
and is thought of as a transition to adulthood. Depending on how the
changes are measured, on average puberty begins at about age 10 for
girls and at about age 12 for boys. It marks the change into an adult
body and includes sexual maturation. Significant changes in cogni-
tion, due at least partly to physical maturation of the brain, begin
to surface. Thought processes become more abstract as teenagers
think about the future in a way that younger children cannot. From
a psychosocial standpoint, adolescence lasts until around the end
of high school. Self-identity becomes prominent as adolescents look
toward the future and establish goals. Adolescents look to friends
for emotional support rather than strictly shared activities; they
also begin romantic relationships. Personal and cultural context
often affects much of the transition to adulthood. For instance, when
adults say that a child has grown up fast because of circumstances
such as war or the death of a parent, the comment usually alludes to
the psychosocial domain.

(continued)

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Section 1.3 Stages of Development

Stage of life and age range Characteristics

Emerging
adulthood

About age 19
to mid-20s

Because the transition time between adolescence and adulthood has
lengthened in recent years, this classification is a newer addition
to conceptualizations of lifespan stages. The characteristic time of
exploration is most common in Westernized young adults, especially
those in the United States who have options due to economic oppor-
tunity. It is a time of feeling in-between adolescence and adulthood,
as emerging adults explore future goals related to school, career,
and family without committing to one path. After graduating from
college, emerging adults may take a gap year without specific goals,
travel before entering graduate school or the workforce, or remain
dependent on parents for an extended period of time.

Early
adulthood

Early 20s to
mid-40s

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