JOURNAL – ADULT VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT DUE IN 48 HOURS DUE IN 48 HOURS Adult Vocational Development Chapter 14 in the course textbook focuses on the -

JOURNAL – ADULT VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT DUE IN 48 HOURS
DUE IN 48 HOURS
Adult Vocational Development
Chapter 14 in the course textbook focuses on the value and meaning of work in adulthood. The social roles and meanings associated with workwhat one does for a living or as a professionare among the most complex and important identities associated with individuals in our society
For this journal assignment, reflect on the substance and theoretical foundation of what you have learned this week about social development, specifically in relation to work and work/life integration. Then write a reflective essay that addresses the following:
Explain how this weeks readings inform, influence, or cast light on your personal educational and work journey.
Reflect on how ones work and related practices fit into stages of development as theorized by Erikson or Maslow.
Discuss how you would advise a younger colleague or client facing decisions in this realm.
Required Text
You can find more helpful items for Constellation at the following site: https://content.rockies.edu/support/tutorials/
Constellation: Mossler, R. A., & Ziegler, M. (2016). Understanding Development: A Lifespan Perspective. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc

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JOURNAL – ADULT VOCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT DUE IN 48 HOURS DUE IN 48 HOURS Adult Vocational Development Chapter 14 in the course textbook focuses on the

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14Education, Work, and Retirement

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Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

Analyze the effect that education has on employment rates, occupational expectations, and income.

Outline the career development theories of Super and Holland.

Examine the role of motivation and job satisfaction in career development.

Evaluate the complex role of gender in the workplace, and how the changing nature of gender roles affects
occupation selection, work expectations, and the wage gap.

Appraise the relationship of work and family.

Assess how race and ethnicity influence workplace variability.

Explain the changing dynamics of work and retirement in middle and later adulthood.

Compare and contrast different kinds of living arrangements associated with aging and retirement.

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Prologue

Chapter Outline

Prologue

14.1 Education and Employment
Changes in Educational Requirements for Careers

14.2 The Meaning of Work
Supers Stage Theory of Vocational Development
Hollands Theory of Vocational Development

14.3 Motivation and Job Satisfaction
Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Rewards and Work
Job Satisfaction

14.4 Gender and Work
Occupational Gender Segregation
The Wage Gap
Assessing Gender Inequality in the Workplace

14.5 Family and Work
Single-Parent Families
Division of Labor in Two-Parent Families
Stay-at-Home Parents

14.6 Race, Ethnicity, and Work

14.7 Retirement
Retirement Age
The Transition to Retirement
Income in Retirement

14.8 Living Arrangements After Retirement
Independent/Retirement Living
Assisted Living
Adult Day Care
Nursing Homes/Skilled Nursing Facilities
Caring for Elders in Their Homes

Summary & Resources

Prologue
Sometimes it is difficult for me to determine whether I chose my career field or whether it
chose me. I enrolled at UCLA as an engineering major, changed to undeclared, then economics,
then back to undeclaredall within about a year. I did not even commit to being a psychol-
ogy major untilin my senior yearmy counselor looked at my transcripts and informed
me that I could not register for classes without declaring a major. However, she noted that I
had already completed the major requirements in psychology. I spent my senior year taking a
number of graduate classes in psychology because I had exhausted the undergraduate menu.

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Section 14.1 Education and Employment

Meanwhile, when I was a sophomore, I had gotten a job as a teachers assistant in a special
education class because it was convenient and sounded interesting enough. I loved the job,
but moved on to private tutoring simply because I was qualified and it paid better. Still an
undergraduate, I used my experience in education and was hired as an educational therapist,
where the pay improved further and the job was a bit more challenging. My education sup-
ported my workas well as the other way aroundand so I was drawn into the fields of
education and psychology, eventually earning a Ph.D. in counseling psychology.

Truly, I have found the ideal career for me, which includes mentoring, writing, and teaching. I
sometimes wonder if I would be writing engineering or physics textbooks had a different job
been made available all of those years ago. While some people enter adulthood determined
to pursue specific career goals, others dip their toes into different fields until they reach one
that feels comfortable. And still others, like me, think they have a plan only to discover it was
ill-fitting. For these reasons and others, it is clear that career and work is integral to identity
development over the lifespan. In this chapter, we explore how education and work contrib-
ute to developmental processes in a way that provides individual meaning. We also consider
how we adapt to retirement and increased dependency as a normal part of aging.

14.1 Education and Employment
Identifying with a career path includes psychological, social, educational, physical, economic,
and, as it did for me, unplanned factors that together influence the work that we do over
our lifetimes. Varied experiences, including trainings and chance opportunities, contribute to
career enhancement. It should come as no surprise that education has a tremendous effect on
financial security once we reach the job market. But how much is a degree worth? We often
hear of figures between $1 million and $3 million in lifetime earnings, but once again, one
number does not tell the whole story. While much depends on how long people work and the
field in which they are eventually employed, it is clear that education in and of itself breeds
both intrapersonal and material success.

Data from the Great Recession offer another reason to earn a degree. College graduates may
not have found ideal jobs, but they had strong advantages. During the years of recession,
adults with a bachelors degree or higher actually gained jobs (see Figure 14.1). The unem-
ployment rate for college graduates over 24 years old never exceeded 4.7%, compared to a
peak of 12% for high school graduates without a college degree. The media in the United
States often highlight the number of recent college graduates who have a difficult time finding
a job, but at the end of the economic downturn their rate of unemployment was 6.8%far
less than the 24% of recent high school graduates (Carnevale, Jayasundera, & Cheah, 2012). If
anything, the importance of a college degree has been understated.

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472

E
m

p
lo

ym
en

t
ch

an
g

e
(m

ill
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s)

RecoveryRecession

People with
Bachelors degrees
or better gained
2 million jobs
in recovery.

People with
Associates degrees
or some college
education gained
1.6 million jobs
in recovery.

Those with high school diplomas or less lost
5.6 million jobs altogether in the recession.

Those with Associates degrees or
some college lost 1.75 million jobs
in the recession.

Those with Bachelors degrees or better gained
187,000 jobs in the recession.

People with high
school diplomas
or less lost
230,000
jobs by
February 2012
in recovery.

Dec. 07 May 08 Oct. 08 Mar. 09 Aug. 09 Jan. 10Jun. 10 Nov. 10 Apr. 11 Sept. 11 Feb. 11

High School or Less

Associates Degree
or Some College

Bachelors Degree
or Better

Note: The monthly employment numbers are seasonally adjusted using the U.S. Census Bureau X-12
procedure and smoothed using four-month moving averages. The graph represents the total
employment losses by education since the beginning of the recession in December 2007 to January
2010 and employment gains in recovery from January 2010 to February 2012.

Section 14.1 Education and Employment

Being terminated from a job can negatively affect identity development, damage self-esteem,
and contribute to a host of mental and physical health problems. While the vast majority of
job losses during the recession were to those who had less than a bachelors degree, their job
numbers were also slower to recover. On the other hand, individuals with college degrees
accelerated their employment gains. In fact, if we look back over 20 years, employment growth
has consisted entirely of those with college degrees. The number of jobs filled by those with a
high school degree or less has dropped 14% during the same time (see Figure 14.2). Clearly, a
college degree is essential for long-term personal and vocational success.

Figure 14.1: Employment changes by education level, 20072012

National data indicate that a college degree is more important than ever. During the recent economic
downturn, individuals with college degrees were able to maintain a much higher rate of employment
than those with only a high school diploma or less.

Source: From Carnevale, A. P., Jayasundera, T., & Cheah, B. (2012). The college advantage: Weathering the economic storm.
Washington, DC: Georgetown University. Reprinted with permission.

E
m

p
lo

ym
en

t
ch

an
g

e
(m

ill
io

n
s)

RecoveryRecession

People with
Bachelors degrees
or better gained
2 million jobs
in recovery.

People with
Associates degrees
or some college
education gained
1.6 million jobs
in recovery.

Those with high school diplomas or less lost
5.6 million jobs altogether in the recession.

Those with Associates degrees or
some college lost 1.75 million jobs
in the recession.

Those with Bachelors degrees or better gained
187,000 jobs in the recession.

People with high
school diplomas
or less lost
230,000
jobs by
February 2012
in recovery.

Dec. 07 May 08 Oct. 08 Mar. 09 Aug. 09 Jan. 10Jun. 10 Nov. 10 Apr. 11 Sept. 11 Feb. 11

High School or Less

Associates Degree
or Some College

Bachelors Degree
or Better

mos82599_14_c14_469-500.indd 472 2/11/16 9:10 AM

473

20%

40%

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60%

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14%

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41%

74% 82%

Recession

High School or Less

Associates Degree
or Some College

Bachelors Degree
or Better

Section 14.1 Education and Employment

Changes in Educational Requirements for Careers
In the past, young people decided on an occupation early, and it was possible to keep the same
occupation throughout ones life. But over the last 40 years, the increased use of technology
has led to dramatic shifts in the type of work that people pursue. Many low-skilled, routine
tasks have been taken over by computers or computerized machines. More and more jobs
require non-routine cognitive tasks, like problem solving, and complex communications that
take higher levels of skill. Young people today are unlikely to keep the same job for longer than
a few years. As adults change jobs, they need to build knowledge and skills that can transfer
from one setting to another. Traditionally, working for an organization meant going to school
to qualify for a particular job. Now, learning occurs not only before the job, but continues
throughout working life. Global competition and technological advances have changed how
organizations work, too. Workers are becoming more independent and are asked to make
more decisions about their area of work. Because of rapid changes, everyone, including front
line workers and executive managers, must stay current with their skills.

Figure 14.2: Employment changes by education level, 19892012

Over more than 20 years, job growth has occurred entirely among workers with postsecondary
educational experience. Over the same period, there has been net loss of employment among those
with a high school diploma or less.

Source: From Carnevale, A. P., Jayasundera, T., & Cheah, B. (2012). The college advantage: Weathering the economic storm.
Washington, DC: Georgetown University. Reprinted with permission.

20%

40%

20%

60%

80%

P
er

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100%

Ja
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42%
41%

74% 82%

Recession

High School or Less

Associates Degree
or Some College

Bachelors Degree
or Better

mos82599_14_c14_469-500.indd 473 2/11/16 9:10 AM

474

Section 14.2 The Meaning of Work

The fastest growing professional careers are in healthcare, information technology, and engi-
neering, which require higher levels of education. This is also true for wholesale and retail
trades, where more than 50% of the workforce requires some postsecondary education.
Employers are willing to pay more for workers who have completed college because a degree
implies that a person has the knowledge, skills, and motivation to improve productivity (BLS,
2015d; Carnevale & Smith, 2011). Even with a degree, todays employees continue to learn on
the job and through formal training.

Section Review
Summarize the relationship between education and employment.

14.2 The Meaning of Work
For most men and women, work takes up a large proportion of their lives. Work has a heavy
influence on where people live, who their friends are, and their participation in social activi-
ties. Depending on the field, work can be a reflection of ones personality, provide social
opportunities, esteem, an outlet for creativity, or it can simply be a way to make money.
Though perhaps ironic, work is also the first stage of retirement and end-of-life planning: It
provides the financial means, personal associations, and involvement in activities that pro-
mote psychosocial growth. Erikson would say that these factors support generativity, leading
to the development of integrity in old age.

The priorities for work can vary greatly by individual and culture. Those who grow up in
an economically advantaged U.S. family are usually either encouraged to find their own
way or pursue prestigious (and lucrative) careers in law, medicine, or business. Likewise,

generations sometimes change little
among working class adults in the U.S.
and elsewhere around the world. It is
not uncommon for children to remain
stagnated within the same economic
circumstances they were born into.
Whereas factories in Detroit and else-
where were once considered an invi-
tation to a higher standard of living,
many abandoned facilities now pro-
vide reminders to children about the
importance of expanding opportuni-
ties through education and training.

Technology and the ease of travel have
changed the landscape of vocational
possibilities, as well. Thanks in part
to the Internet, people can more eas-
ily pursue jobs anywhere in the world.
And many people do work all over the

iStock/Thinkstock

Work not only takes up a large amount of a persons
life, but it influences how people live, dress, and
socially interact.

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475

Section 14.2 The Meaning of Work

world, without ever leaving their computers. Therefore, adults can have more confidence to
pursue jobs that they feel are important, not just necessary to earn a living. The increase in
service jobs and the decrease in manufacturing jobs in the United States also means that the
nature of work has changed. More than in previous years, students and job seekers can more
easily access information to align careers with personal and professional goals.

An occupation has a great influence on how individuals dress and behave, and it is key to
what partners look for in beginning love relationships, at topic we considered in Chapter 12.
Where you live and work, even what you do at work, has a big impact on which people you
will become acquainted with. Families and jobs are usually part of the narrative for young
adults who hypothesize about the future. Later family organization includes factors related
to work, including the seemingly separate structure of the household. In old age, people still
define themselves by what they have accomplished, both personally and vocationally. All of
these factors explain how work affects well-being, motivation, and identity (DArgembeau,
Lardi, Van der Linden, 2012; Oyserman, 2015).

Supers Stage Theory of Vocational Development
The juxtaposition of work and identity development is consistent with the best-known early
theory of career development, advanced by vocational psychologist Donald Super. His life-
span model, which emphasized a normative approach to career development, suggested
that self-concept is integrated with occupational experiences (Super, 1957, 1990). Work is
integral to reaching cognitive and psychosocial potential by offering avenues of pursuit that
are consistent with self-concept. And satisfaction in work depends on how well self-identity
is promoted. For instance, if you think of yourself as a people person, you will achieve psy-
chological growth in a position where you view yourself as helping others, as in the fields of
psychology or social services.

As part of Supers life-span model, adults progress through a series of five distinct stages of
career development:

Growth (early childhood through early adolescence): Children learn about work in
general, form attitudes, and develop values that are integrated into self-concept.

Exploration (about ages 1524): Beginning in adolescence, individuals take classes,
engage in hobbies, and try out jobs in order to narrow career preference. Students
who enroll in classes unsystematically or volunteer at random sites remain in an
exploratory phase (which may not be unhealthy).

Establishment (early adulthood): Individuals settle into an occupation and then build
skills in order to advance in their fields. The expression of self-concept goes through
a parallel period of growth. For example, when President Barack Obama was a law
professor while concurrently performing the duties of a community activist, he was
building the skills he would need for political office.

Maintenance (middle adulthood): People maximize efficiency as they adjust to
changes and their positions improve. Oprah Winfrey is an example of this, as she
expanded and transformed her media presence in the face of increasing competition.

Deceleration (late adulthood): Workload and productivity decrease; people imple-
ment retirement plans. Bill Gates demonstrated this stage as he surrounded himself
with people who could carry out his ideas while he moved out of his role as overseer.
Gates simultaneously entered an establishment stage with the creation of the Bill
and Melinda Gates Foundation.

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476

Section 14.2 The Meaning of Work

The life-span model helps to explain how occupations evolve as a function of self-concept
development, and also acknowledges that individuals cannot always realize their full poten-
tial. Work cannot be isolated from other roles, such as those related to parenting, being a
spouse, or engaging in leisure activities (Super, 1990). Therefore, according to Super and his
followers, people need to integrate personal factors, such as values, needs, and skills, as well
as ecological factors, like family, neighborhood, and economic opportunity, into career plan-
ning (Savickas, 2002). For instance, circumstances may demand that the people person
remain in a small town where becoming a psychologist is not practical. Instead, perhaps an
alternative like teaching or managing a small store would allow for congruency to be main-
tained between self-concept and occupational behaviors.

Evaluation of Super
Supers theory continues to be influential and has contributed to a number of career develop-
ment assessments. High schools, colleges, and vocational counselors continue to use them.
The Adult Career Concerns Inventory (ACCI; Super, Thompson, & Lindeman, 1988) and the
Career Development Inventory (CDI; Super, Thompson, Lindeman, Jordaan, & Myers, 1981)
measure the amount of concern that individuals have with tasks at any particular stage. Indi-
viduals and counselors can then use this information to assess potential consequences of a
planned job change. The Work Values Inventory aligns 12 values (like dress, prestige, income,
or creativity) with a career. This approach diverges from (or, alternatively, complements) other
instruments that might focus only on interests and skills (Robinson & Betz, 2008).

Super acknowledged that work roles could not be isolated from other goals (Super, 1990).
Therefore, it is not always easy to generalize his theory to a broad range of individuals. Impor-
tantly, there is a lack of a cross-cultural perspective. Not everyones work life proceeds in a
linear progression. Another criticism is that this model assumes that career choice is mostly
an internal process and does not take into consideration the impact of external factors like
poverty, lack of education, racism, and other social circumstances. Career priorities may vary
according to culture and gender as well. Care of parents or, especially, young children often
impacts occupational development (Brown, 1990; Leong & Brown, 1995).

Therefore, there is relative importance of roles related to family, work, community, and lei-
sure. Climbing the company ladder is not the typical career trajectory that it was in the 1950s
when the theory was first developed. Companies downsize as necessary; workers change jobs
in order to advance their careers. A lack of loyalty on both sides contributes to more divergent
career pathways.

Hollands Theory of Vocational Development
Before determining that career choices occur over the lifespan, Super began with a trait
approach, like that represented by the Big Five, which we discussed in Chapter 11 (Super,
1990). He thought that traits would naturally lead people to the right jobs. He later aban-
doned that approach in favor of the developmental model, which more easily incorporates the
variability of ecological factors.

John Holland filled the void and developed assessments to match distinct interests and per-
sonality characteristics with jobs that will allow the expression of those traits. Whereas
Super felt that people pursue careers in order to maintain subjective congruency with their

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477

Section 14.2 The Meaning of Work

self-identities, Holland focused on objective analyses of interests, intelligence, skills, and val-
ues (Holland, 1958, 1996, 1997). According to Holland, this approach uses personality type
to optimize career satisfaction. The test instruments he developed (that others have since
modified and expanded) ask about school subjects, types of people, pastimes, events, and
careers that may or may not be appealing. The answers are analyzed to identify strengths and
weaknesses in six types of vocational interests known as RIASEC types (realistic, investiga-
tive, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional), as shown in Table 14.1.

Table 14.1: Hollands six basic vocational types

Personality type Characteristics Matching careers

Realistic Likes to solve concrete problems, work
with hands and tools, to build. Enjoys
physical labor. Practical, athletic, techni-
cal. Social activity jobs do not appeal.
Traits: Stable, practical, independent

Firefighter, repair and construction
worker, farmer, physical therapist,
police officer, architect, chef, nurse.

Investigative Likes to solve puzzles and discover
relationships; values scientific and intel-
lectual jobs. Enjoys exploration of places
and ideas. Leading and repetition are
not desired.
Traits: Analytical, technical, exacting

Lawyer, reporter, scientist, engineer,
computer scientist, psychologist, profes-
sor, mathematician, finance, physician,
web developer, insurance adjuster.

Artistic Values self-expression and creative jobs.
Structure and repetitive jobs do not
appeal.
Traits: Independent, spontaneous,
expressive, creative

Actor, artist, dancer, graphic designer,
fashion designer, marketer, public rela-
tions worker, set designer, composer,
photographer.

Social Enjoys working with people, solving
social problems, and interacting with
others in a cooperative manner. Jobs
involving machines, animals, or isolated
work do not appeal.
Traits: Sociable, cooperative, empathic,
friendly

Doctor, nurse, and other healthcare
workers; teacher and others in educa-
tion; therapist, theologian, human rela-
tions, psychologist, childcare worker.

Enterprising Likes to persuade, influence, and man-
age. Values jobs emphasizing energy,
ambition, competition, and social inter-
action. Does not like solitary jobs and
those that have a lot of precise, system-
atic activities.
Traits: Ambitious, assertive, energetic,
persuasive

Politician, lawyer, manager, stockbroker,
public relations worker, salesperson or
buyer, bartender, administrator, realtor.

Conventional Likes to work with data, numbers,
and words. Values good organiza-
tion and jobs emphasizing system-
atic approaches and concrete plans.
Jobs that require ambiguous ideas or
unstructured activities do not appeal.
Traits: Detailed, conscientious, logical

Accountant, payroll clerk, copyeditor,
actuary, technical writer, investment
banker, chief financial officer, banker,
legal secretary.

Source: Holland, J. L. (1997).

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478

Section 14.2 The Meaning of Work

According to Holland (1997), we can categorize every vocational interest with a combination
of the six occupational themes (or codes), corresponding to six kinds of work environments.
For instance, we would direct a creative person to a job in the arts; a social person might be
suited to the education field; someone who embraces organization and leadership may enjoy
public administration. Rather than one specific vocational category, every person is a unique
blend of the six types and is usually described by three of the six RIASEC types. For instance,
if a persons three highest scores are realistic (R), investigative (I), and social (S), then that
persons vocational type is RIS (Realistic, Investigative, Social). An individual with an RIS type
might be directed to mechanical engineering, which includes elements of design, develop-
ment, building, and testing mechanical devices.

Support for the RIASEC model was found in a study
of nearly 50,000 ethnic minorities separated into 10
groups by ethnicity and gender. Among all 10 groups,
there were consistent patterns of vocational interest
(Day & Rounds, 1998). The authors compared their
findings to the universal nature of vocational interest as
outlined by McCrae and Costas trait theory of personal-

ity, and concluded that, people of different ethnicities and sexes hold the same cognitive map
of the world of work when the structures of their preferences are examined (p. 734). Their
research appears to support the idea that vocational interests develop as a natural comple-
ment to personality development.

Evaluation of Holland
Although Hollands work has been adapted to use in multiple languages around the world,
some have questioned its applicability in the global economy. Like Supers theory, it tends
to be biased toward those from higher SES groups (Brown, 1990). According to the Holland
model, individuals can choose their vocations; career counseling is designed to help adults
maximize their options. However, this perspective may only be meaningful to those in the
industrialized world who can afford to be choosy about what they do for work (Coutinho,
Dam, & Blustein, 2008). The pursuit of a career is less important to those who need to take
any job that will help pay bills. Further, the assumption that work and career achievement is
key to identity development is not as relevant among women and ethnically diverse groups
(Cook, Heppner, & OBrian, 2002; ONeill, Shapiro, Ingols, & Blake-Beard, 2013). Some groups
care as much or more about their roles as family and community members than they do their
work roles. And occupational barriers (including stereotypes), whether self-imposed or soci-
etal, may limit job choices and their connection to adult development.

Another obvious weakness in Hollands model is that not everyone who takes a vocational
inventory is at the same developmental level. That is, a college student and a middle-aged
adult with similar vocational profiles are likely to be quite different developmentally. Although
vocational interests overall are moderately stable, there still can be substantial fluctuation,
especially between ages 30 and 40 (Low, Yoon, Roberts, & Rounds, 2005). It is also possible
to match vocational interests without accounting for other important factors, like how moti-
vated a person is to do a particular job and how much it pays (Schwartz, 1992). For instance,
becoming an artist may be the appropriate outlet for an individuals personality, but it may
not offer the necessary financial rewards.

Critical Thinking

Explain how a mechanical engineer might
test relatively high on realistic, investiga-
tive, and social factors.

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479

Section 14.3 Motivation and Job Satisfaction

14.3 Motivation and Job Satisfaction
In general there is a moderate relationship between job satisfaction and performance. How-
ever, psychologists differ in the way in which satisfaction is measured. We cannot equally
apply results from specific occupational fields, income levels, cultures, or nationalities (Dug-
guh & Dennis, 2014; Faye et al., 2013; Schleicher, Watt, & Greguras, 2004). Regardless of
the data, when opportunities are varied, workers must strike a balance between the nature
of the work, the tangible rewards it offers, and perhaps the intangible rewards, like social
relationships.

Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Rewards and Work
Supers life-span model and Hollands
codes incorporate ecological variables
to some degree, but their strengths
for career counselors and individuals
really rest with the search for congru-
ency between personality develop-
ment and occupation. When job satis-
faction relies on gaining pleasure out
of the work itself, psychologists say
there are intrinsic factors that govern
motivation. Intrinsic motivational fac-
tors occur in any job activity that feels
good to perform. They may involve
manipulating numbers, physical exer-
tion, sitting at a desk, or remaining
outdoors. Construction workers may
gain intrinsic pleasure out of physical
activities as well as the mental activi-
ties of planning, creating, and the sat-
isfaction of a completed proj

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