Discussion 4: The Concept of Self
Prior to beginning work on this discussion, read Chapter 9 of the course textbook, and review sections 2.5, 3.1, and 3.2 from previous chapters. Also, read the articles Childrens Sense of Self: Learning and Meaning in the Digital Age and Personal Self-Concept and Satisfaction With Life in Adolescence, Youth, and Adulthood (Dodge, Barab, Stuckey, Warren, Heiselt, & Stein, 2008; Palacios, Echaniz, Fernndez, & Barrn, 2015). ALL INCLUDED IN ATTACHMENTS
The concept of self is a core concept for the study of personality, and most of the theories we have studied in this course postulate some idea about what constitutes the self. This weeks materials examine the self-psychology model, which presents several theories regarding how we perceive ourselves and how that perception is expressed in personalities.
In your initial post:
Identify two theories of self from those discussed in Chapter 9 that resonate the most with you.
Provide a brief overview of each theory, being sure to identify the principal theorists associated with each of your two chosen theories.
Explain why you relate to these theories.
Describe the impact of the current digital age on the concept of self, including the impact of social media on the way we perceive ourselves.
Explain whether or not our perceptions of self are evolving because of social media, including the idea of a digital self, and provide examples of how this might be happening or provide a rationale as to why you believe it is not happening.
Your initial post should be a minimum of 350 words and should include references to both of the assigned articles.
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Chapter 9
Self-Psychology: Humanistic/Existential Models of Personality
Creatas/Thinkstock
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Describe William James’ theory on multiple selves.
Characterize Carl Rogers’ humanistic approach to understanding the self and the constructs of unconditional positive regard and conditions of
worth.
Identify Maslow’s needs hierarchy and its relation to self-actualization.
Characterize the views of the existential theorists.
Describe and critique the research examining the emergence of the self, using self-directed behavior in the mirror.
Understand Markus and Nurius’ concept of possible selves and how they can motivate behavior.
Describe Higgins’ self-discrepancy theory and the contrasts among the actual, ideal, and ought selves.
Contrast the public and private self and how these constructs relate to individualism and collectivism.
Describe terror management theory and how we experience existential threats to the self via mortality salience and the buffering effects of self-
esteem.
Name and describe several measures of self-related constructs.
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Introduction
“There comes a time when you look into the mirror and you realize that what you see is all that you will ever be. And then you accept it. Or you kill yourself. Or
you stop looking in mirrors.” Tennessee Williams
I am a ____________. If you were asked to complete this sentence, what would you say? What word or phrase would best explain who you are? You might say
“boyfriend/girlfriend of _______,” or “son/daughter of ______,” or a maybe you’d use a trait like “funny” or “smart.” Or maybe the context of your environment
would dictate your response. If you were traveling abroad, for example, you might claim your nationality, but at home you might claim your state or town as
integral to your identity. Or maybe your response would be dictated by your mood; you then might be “thankful” on a holiday, “miserable” during finals, or
“angry” after you fail your personality theory test. So which response(s) defines the “real” you? Of course, each of these responses (and the many more you could
have written) reveals some aspect of who you are and begins to address what will be termed the self-concept.
The self-concept is, in essence, a theory one has about oneself. It provides meaning for one’s life, it makes predictions about the future, and it guides motivated
behavior. When does the self-concept develop and does it develop for non-human species? How do we know when someone develops a self-concept? What can the
mirror tell us about the self and can it induce greater self-focused attention? Is self-awareness the same as self-recognition? How do we respond when the self is
threatened? How do other cultures view the self? These are some of the questions to be considered in this chapter to help us better understand what is
encompassed by the self-concept. We will review the perspectives of humanism and existentialism, along with the more traditional views of the self.
Humanistic/Exisential Model
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Beyond The Text: Classic Writings
In this early writing, William James (1892) writes about his
multiple conceptualizations the self. Click here
(https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/AUPSY330.12.2/{pdfs}ch_9_the_principles_of_psychology_chapter_10_james.pdf)
to read it.
Reference: James, W. (1892). The conscious self. In W.
James, The principles of psychology (Volume 1), Chapter 10.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Retrieved from
http://psychclassics.yorku.
ca/James/Principles/prin10.htm
(http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/James/Principles/prin10.htm)
9.1 Major Historical Figures in Self-Psychology
Although virtually every prominent figure in psychology makes reference to the self, a limited number of theorists made this the central theme of their theoretical contributions
to understanding the person. The theorists who reclaimed the “self” as the focus of investigating human personality initiated a movement known as humanism-existentialism. In
this chapter, we will review the works of those who contributed to this movement and the emphasis on the self, including William James, Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, Viktor
Frankl, Rollo May, and others.
William James and Multiple Selves
William James was one of the earliest writers to expound on the concept of self. He defined the self as the sum total of everything that can be referred to as ours, and he
explicitly included our “psychic powers” (i.e., internal mental experiences), as well as all of our material possessions, family, ancestors, friends, and even our body (James,
1890). Because James adopts such a broad view of the self, he considered it to encompass the constituent parts of “I,” which is a subjective sense of self, and reflects active
thought (the knower), and “me,” which is an objective sense of self, with features that reflect the self-concept (the known). James further subdivided the self into (1) its
constituents, (2) the aroused feelings and emotions, and (3) the actions prompted by the former two, which James specified as being either self-seeking or self-preserving in
nature.
James’ (1890) theory further divides the constituents into three selves: the material, social, and the spiritual, listed in ascending order of importance. The material self (me)
includes all of our material possessions, including our bodies. James suggested that as we become more invested in our material possessions, they define us more. The social self
is defined by all of our interpersonal relationships, and James believed that there were many, often diverse, versions of this self. James tied the manifestation of a specific version
of the social self to the available social cues. Thus, he believed that we present with the social self that is most consistent with (or drawn out by) the given social environment.
The most important selfthe one that reveals our innermost selfis the spiritual self. James believed that the spiritual self reflected our conscience, morality, and inner will.
James also believed that the spiritual self guides the other selves, dictating the range of available social selves and the sought-after material selves. When considered in this way,
it is reasonable to assume that by examining a person’s possessions and interpersonal presentations, it is possible to discern the inner (spiritual) self.
Finally, James (1890) also wrote extensively about the ego, but he referred to it in a different way from
Freud, who was likewise articulating some of his earliest theories at this time. Specifically, James defined
the ego as one’s total sense of identity, emphasizing the ego’s ability to conceive of the totality of the self,
an integration of all of the components. This ability is critical to identifying incongruities, which can
prompt ego-driven change. For example, if the material self involves the amassing of numerous material
possessions, but some of the core values of the spiritual self emphasize self-sacrifice and philanthropy, then
this inconsistency will presumably lead to changes in the material self.
James believed that there is the potential for multiple selves, but that ultimately those selves must compete
for a limited resourcethat being you. In the end, we must choose who we will be, if not exclusively, then
at least predominantly.
Carl Rogers and the Humanistic Movement
Carl Rogers was a psychologist who also had trained in pastoral ministries, and his theory reflects many of the values that were no doubt instilled in his pastoral training. For
example, Rogers believed that humans were good at the core, but that circumstances could foster bad behavior. This was in sharp contrast to the baser nature of Freud’s id.
Rogers based his ideas on the central tenet that a person is at the center of his or her own phenomenal field, coming from a Greek word that means “how things show
themselves.” The phenomenal field is the totality of a person’s immediate experiences from his or her own perspective. This experience is not static; rather, it is a dynamic
process. Therefore, the self is also dynamic, changing as a function of one’s subjective experience. In this sense, Rogers was at least partly responsible for putting the person
back at the center of personality. Rogers emphasized not just the experience that is readily available to the individual, but also what is potentially available (i.e., the phenomenal
field includes things of which one might not have awareness at the moment) (Rogers, 1959). Rogers emphasized the perception of reality, and although most people’s
perceptions capture aspects of the real world with which we all must deal, it is the case that an individual’s perception could be quite unique and distinct from it (Rogers, 1951).
Although popularized by other theorists, it was Carl Rogers who first used the term self-actualization to refer to the goal-directed behavior of the individual toward achieving
his or her potential. Rogers emphasized that actualization of the self is not automatic and can be extraordinarily difficult depending on the environmental circumstances (Rogers,
1951). Rogers stated that the process of actualization is more likely to occur when people have full awareness of themselves and the world around them. Emotions are thought
facilitate the process of actualization by driving goal-directed behavior. More recently, researchers have used the term “flourishing” to refer to a process similar to Rogers’ self-
actualization, and they include the concepts of self-acceptance, autonomy, mastery, and personal growth (e.g., Ryff & Singer, 2000).
Rogers’ view of the self is an important aspect of the phenomenal field that with time becomes a differentiated entity. Rogers defined this part of the phenomenal field using
https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/AUPSY330.12.2/%7Bpdfs%7Dch_9_the_principles_of_psychology_chapter_10_james.pdf
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/James/Principles/prin10.htm
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iStockphoto/Thinkstock
In what ways have you experienced unconditional positive regard versus
conditions of worth?
terms similar to those employed by James, like “I” and “me,” and he includes not only one’s own views, but also those of others (e.g., how others view what I call “me”). Rogers
also believed that all of our experiences are either accepted, which Rogers would refer to as symbolized (i.e., perceived by the individual and cognitively organized), or they are
not accepted, and either distorted into something else that is more consistent with one’s self-concept (i.e., changing the reality of how something is perceived), or denied, which
preserves the self-concept from any experience that might threaten it. Distortion and denial are Rogers’ equivalents of Freud’s defense mechanisms.
Important to Rogers’ theory is the belief in an ideal self, which is essentially the self that reflects the attainment of goal-directed action. By using the term “ideal,” Rogers is
implying that the ideal self is not realand in some ways, it is out of reach. The ideal self is thought to emerge when the individual’s actual experiences and symbolized
experiences are equivalent. In this scenario, the actual self, which refers to the person’s perceived current self-state (the “I am”), and the ideal self are the same. When there are
significant discrepancies between the actual and ideal self, which would occur when the person engages in denial or distortion of experiences, then, Rogers argued, the individual
experiences incongruence, and this can lead to maladjustment.
Thus, psychological adjustment comes from fully experiencing and accepting reality; the use of defenses undermines this process. Notice how this differs from Freud, who
believed that the defenses were needed to achieve psychological adjustment. In fact, Rogers believed that we would function best after becoming aware of impulses so that we
could consciously control them.
EstablishingEstablishing Conditions Conditions of of Worth Worth
Rogers was an advocate of the position that in the absence of restriction on the self, individuals will
strive for and achieve their ideal self. Rogers referred to this as the experience of unconditional
positive regard, which means that you feel accepted no matter what you do (unconditionally). The
prototype for a relationship with unconditional positive regard is supposed to be the parental
relationship, but not everyone receives this from their parents. When Rogers developed his therapeutic
approach, one of the techniques he employed was to be a source of unconditional positive regard for his
patients. The reason for the success of this approach, according to Rogers, was that many individuals
lack unconditional positive regard from anyone in their life. In contrast, Rogers saw people
experiencing what he termed conditions of worth, which is when people withhold love and acceptance
unless the individual behaves in a certain manner. “I’ll love you if you do me this favor,” would be an
example of a condition of worth, because it says that you’re valued and accepted only if and when you
do the favor. Rogers believed that maladjustment occurs as a result of too many conditions of worth, because the individual either fails to meet the conditions and gain the
positive regard from others or because he or she does not act in a genuine manner in order to meet the conditions. This theoretical position on the meaning of maladjustment
provided a justification for Rogers’ form of therapy (referred to as person-centered therapy), in which he provides unconditional positive regard by being empathic, accepting,
and genuine. In his theory, Rogers emphasized an almost single-minded focus on positive development, rather than focusing on negative behavior and the incidence of
psychological disorders. In this respect, Rogers was at the forefront of what would later be referred to as the positive psychology movement (e.g., Seligman & Csikszenmihalyi,
2000). Rogers also believed that human beings are the primary agents of change and that his role in affecting any change was simply to provide non-guided support in the form
of unconditional positive regard. This was ultimately characterized as supportive psychotherapy.
Abraham Maslow
Abraham Maslow was a convert from behaviorism who established a hierarchical model of human motivation and the self. Like Rogers, he believed that humans are focused
growth, rather than simply repairing problems. Maslow (1970) also used the term self-actualization to refer to the individual’s capacity and willingness to reach his or her fullest
potential. This includes striving for happiness and self-satisfaction.
Maslow noted the difference between what he called motivation and meta-motivation. His motivation referred to the satisfaction of deficits (which is very similar to the
behavioral definition). This deficit-reduction aspect of motivation focuses on the deficiency needs (or D-needs) that arise from our basic requirements for life. They include, in
ascending order of importance, according to Maslow (1970):
1. Physiological needs, which are the most basic and strongest needs in life. For example, in order to survive, we need food, water, and air.
2. Safety needs, which not only refers to threats to our existence, but also to anything that can undermine predictability and a sense of security.
3. Belongingness needs, which refers to our basic human need for affection and interaction. We need to feel as though we belong in a social context.
4. Esteem needs, which refers to both our own sense of competence and the sense that others perceive our competence.
These needs have to be continually met, as their satisfaction is only temporary.
In contrast, meta-motivation is focused exclusively on growth. These being needs (B-needs) are the essence of our need and desire to self-actualizethat is, they are the
motivation to achieve complete self-fulfillment. On a day-to-day basis, the individual must focus on D-needs in order to survive. The B-needs allow one to thrive, and become
the focus of attention only after the D-needs are met. Of course, because the satisfaction of D-needs is always a temporary state, this means that opportunities for self-
actualization are necessarily brief. Fortunately, however, even a single experience of self-actualization can sustain us for a lifetime. As an illustration, some individuals achieve
moment of complete spiritual fulfillment, or a brief time of supreme relaxation or love (e.g., that special beach you visited with someone close to you), or, for some, it occurs
something as simple as a hobby like golf (e.g., a few holes when you seemed to hit everything just right with very little effort or thought). In that brief period of time, you enjoy
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Maslow suggested that self-actualization involves “peak experiences” that allow
for a sense of personal growth and meaning. If this individual is having such an
experience, then he would be enjoying the moment with a high level of self-
awareness and would not be thinking about any deficiency needs.
the moment, achieve a higher level of awareness, and maybe even experience the world outside of
yourself (i.e., no thoughts of your D-needs). We can then relive this experience and receive much of the
same positive emotional experiences well after the fact.
Unlike many others in the field of personality psychology, Maslow focused on some of the highest-
functioning individuals to better understand the basics of the self. As noted from his model, Maslow
believed that those who self-actualize represent our highest level of achievement and the highest level
with respect to mental health. Maslow believed that those who self-actualize (as described above) have
what he termed “peak experiences,” where the individual transcends D-needs and can simply live
(briefly) in the moment and reach their highest potential. Peak experiences were defined as experiences
of personal growth and meaningfulness in life. By living in the moment, someone who regularly self-
actualizes can have a peak experience even by engaging in mundane activities that are part of the
process of satisfying D-needs.
Although Maslow studied a wide range of people who he considered self-actualizers, his sample was somewhat limited to those who had achieved political, scientific, or artistic
prominence in Western culture.
Sren Kierkegaard, Rollo May, Viktor Frankl, Irvin Yalom, and the Existentialist Movement
These individuals collectively contributed to the existential movement, which thrived in the 19th and 20th centuries, and proliferated most following World War II. Like the
humanistic movement, existentialism begins with the individual (the self) as he or she emerges (i.e., the emergence and development of identity). A second basic assumption is
that humans begin with a sense of disorientation or confusion caused by the lack of intrinsic meaning in our world.
SrenSren Kierkegaard Kierkegaard
Sren Kierkegaard was a philosopher, but he is often credited as the first existentialisteven though this label came after the fact, as Kierkegaard himself never used that term
(Marino, 2004). Kierkegaard believed that every individual was responsible for creating a sense of meaning in life and then living it in a real (“authentic”) manner. Kierkegaard
believed that individuals acquire freedom by expanding self-awareness and taking responsibility for their actions. This responsibility is focused largely on establishing the
meaning of life, rather than placing that burden on society. However, Kierkegaard (1957) believed that gaining freedom and responsibility has a trade-off; it is accompanied by
anxiety and dread.
RolloRollo May May
Rollo May’s work is considered within the existential movement because of his emphasis on the experience of the self, the person as the active agent in life, and the role of
anxiety as an existential threat (May, 1950). May believed that human behavior cannot be predicted from abstract laws and principles because any laws that are relevant to the
individual come from that person’s experience of life (May, 1953). The existential view also begins with a questioning of one’s personal existence, with a meaningful life defined
by authenticity to the self.
May was a clinical psychologist who, like Rogers, initially pursued a degree in religion (he actually completed his masters degree in divinity school). May believed that
significant problems are found in individuals’ failure to assume responsibility, perception that they are unable to act effectively in the face of considerable problems in life
(termed powerlessness), and unwillingness to make difficult choices.
May wrote extensively about anxiety, suggesting that anxiety manifests when we become aware of our own sense of mortality. In keeping with his theory, May defined anxiety
as a response that occurs when something that is central to one’s existence is threatened (May, 1950). May believed that such existential threat from anxiety is inevitable but that
the particular source of anxiety can change. He also differentiated normal anxiety, which naturally occurs, is proportionate to a threat, can be managed, and can even lead to
creative responses, from neurotic anxiety, which is disproportionate to the threat, inhibits personal growth, and results in defensiveness. May believed that a significant source
of our neurosis comes from the loss or misplacement of values, especially given Western society’s dominant values of materialism and success.
Central to May’s theory, and existentialism, is an awareness of the self (May, 1953). May suggested that this process of awareness or consciousness occurs over several stages.
The first is innocence, in which as an infant we first become aware of the self. The second stage is rebellion, in which the child begins to establish self-driven behavior as
independent of the will of others. This may manifest as defiance as the individual seeks to express free will. The third stage involves ordinary awareness, whereby one is
experiencing free will but is also taking responsibility for those choices. The last stage is a creative awareness of the self and involves our ability to see the self beyond its
normal bounds. May defined the third and fourth stages as the healthy versions of consciousness of the self, but he noted that few individuals achieve the fourth stage.
May also wrote about guilt, suggesting that it occurs when we fail to recognize our potential, fail to recognize the needs of others, or fail to acknowledge our interdependence
the world (largely referring to our interdependence with other people). May wrote about many other topics, such as love and free will, but in all cases he emphasized our
personal ability to make choices and take responsibility for those choices. Importantly, May believed that apathy and emptiness were the biggest existential threats and that
psychopathology would result from problems connecting with others and the inability to reach one’s destiny. In keeping with this philosophy, May did not “cure” disorders.
Instead, he believed that his therapy simply made people more human.
ViktorViktor Frankl Frankl
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Beyond The Text: Classic Writings
Read Sartre’s 1946 lecture, Existentialism Is a Humanism, in
which he explains and defends existentialism against its
critics, at http://www.marxists.org/
reference/archive/sartre/ works/exist/sartre.htm
(http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/sartre/works/exist/sartre.htm)
Reference: Satre, J. (1989). Existentialism is a humanism. In
W. Kaufman (Ed.), Existentialism from Dostoyevsky to Sarte.
Amsterdam: Meridian Publishing Company.
Viktor Frankl was also a proponent of existential psychotherapy, as he emphasized human existence and human reality, and he focused on human crises. Drawing from his
experiences in a concentration camp during World War II, Frankl (1984) noted how individuals are able to derive meaning from such horrific circumstances, and the ability to
derive meaning is what can offset the emptiness that can otherwise exist in and disrupt life. Interestingly, Frankl didn’t just experience life in concentration camps (including
Auschwitz), he actually engaged in therapy to help new-comers experiencing shock adjust to the difficult environment. Frankl’s version of therapy, which he called logotherapy
involved imbuing life with meaning, which meant intentionally seeking out and creating meaningful encounters.
In his book, The Search for Meaning, Frankl (1984) wrote about such topics as anxiety and love, and he believed that humans should always direct their actions and will toward
others. Frankl claimed that by focusing on others and forgetting oneself, one can achieve a greater sense of humanity, with even a possibility of self-actualization for a select few.
Indeed, by focusing on others (or the broader human condition), he believed that the end product is a greater sense of fulfillment, whereas by focusing on oneself, the end
product is existential angst and a sense of meaninglessness (see also Sartre, 1965, for a similar perspective).
In addition to helping people deal with the horrors of concentration camps, Frankl also dealt with the more
mundane aspects of life that could undermine one’s sense of meaning. For example, he coined the term
“Sunday neurosis” to characterize people who have no sense of meaning in their life outside the context of
their work. Thus, on a traditional day of rest, Frankl suggested that these individuals were in an existential
vacuum and unable to find meaning in their lives (see also Yalom, 1980). Frankl would argue that if you
feel bored, apathetic, and empty when you are not working, this label would apply to you as well (a
problem that is, no doubt, now minimized by 24/7 access to the Internet).
IrvinIrvin Yalom Yalom
Irvin Yalom is another prominent existentialist who has made significant contributions to the field. He
developed his own version of existential therapy that converged with many of the above-mentioned
theorists and practitioners. Yalom’s (1980) writings on existential therapy emphasized four assumptions
that apply to the human condition: (1) the experience of meaninglessness, (2) isolation, (3) mortality, and
(4) freedom. The key for Yalom is not whether these experiences occur (he believes they do for ever
