chapter 2
see the book chapter 2
Northouse describes the following leadership traits: Intelligence, confidence, charisma, determination, sociability, integrity. Which of these traits do you consider your strengths? Why? Give examples! Which of these traits distracts from your leadership? (just one!) How? What actions could you take to develop this area (or work around it if that is more appropriate)?
Introduction to Leadership
Fourth Edition
2
To Madison and Isla
3
Introduction to Leadership
Concepts and Practice
Fourth Edition
Peter G. Northouse
Western Michigan University
4
FOR INFORMATION:
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5
Acquisitions Editor: Maggie Stanley
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Brief Contents
1. Preface
2. About the Author
3. 1. Understanding Leadership
4. 2. Recognizing Your Traits
5. 3. Engaging Strengths
6. 4. Understanding Philosophy and Styles
7. 5. Attending to Tasks and Relationships
8. 6. Developing Leadership Skills
9. 7. Creating a Vision
10. 8. Establishing a Constructive Climate
11. 9. Embracing Diversity and Inclusion
12. 10. Listening to Out-Group Members
13. 11. Managing Conflict
14. 12. Addressing Ethics in Leadership
15. 13. Overcoming Obstacles
16. Glossary
17. Index
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Detailed Contents
Preface
About the Author
1. Understanding Leadership
Introduction
Leadership Explained
Leadership Is a Trait
Leadership Is an Ability
Leadership Is a Skill
Leadership Is a Behavior
Leadership Is a Relationship
Leadership Is an Influence Process
Global Leadership Attributes
The Dark Side of Leadership
Leadership Snapshot: Indra Nooyi
Summary
Application
1.1 Case Study
1.2 Conceptualizing Leadership Questionnaire
1.3 Observational Exercise
1.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet
References
2. Recognizing Your Traits
Introduction
Leadership Traits Explained
Intelligence
Confidence
Charisma
Determination
Sociability
Integrity
Leadership Snapshot: Nelson Mandela
Leadership Traits in Practice
George Washington (17321799)
Winston Churchill (18741965)
Mother Teresa (19101997)
Bill Gates (1955)
Oprah Winfrey (1954)
Summary
Application
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2.1 Case Study
2.2 Leadership Traits Questionnaire
2.3 Observational Exercise
2.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet
References
3. Engaging Strengths
Introduction
Strengths-Based Leadership Explained
Historical Background
Identifying and Measuring Strengths
Strengths-Based Leadership in Practice
Discovering Your Strengths
Developing Your Strengths
Addressing Your Weaknesses
Leadership Snapshot: Steve Jobs
Recognizing and Engaging the Strengths of Others
Fostering a Positive Strengths-Based Environment
Summary
Application
3.1 Case Study
3.2 Leadership Strengths Questionnaire
3.3 Observational Exercise
3.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet
References
4. Understanding Philosophy and Styles
Introduction
Leadership Philosophy Explained
Theory X
Theory Y
Leadership Styles Explained
Authoritarian Leadership Style
Democratic Leadership Style
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Leadership Snapshot: Victoria Ransom
Leadership Styles in Practice
Summary
Application
4.1 Case Study
4.2 Leadership Styles Questionnaire
4.3 Observational Exercise
4.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet
References
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5. Attending to Tasks and Relationships
Introduction
Task and Relationship Styles Explained
Task Style
Relationship Style
Leadership Snapshot: Mick Wilz
Task and Relationship Styles in Practice
Task Leadership
Relationship Leadership
Summary
Application
5.1 Case Study
5.2 Task and Relationship Questionnaire
5.3 Observational Exercise
5.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet
References
6. Developing Leadership Skills
Introduction
Administrative Skills Explained
Administrative Skills in Practice
Interpersonal Skills Explained
Interpersonal Skills in Practice
Leadership Snapshot: Coquese Washington
Conceptual Skills Explained
Conceptual Skills in Practice
Summary
Application
6.1 Case Study
6.2 Leadership Skills Questionnaire
6.3 Observational Exercise
6.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet
References
7. Creating a Vision
Introduction
Vision Explained
A Picture
A Change
Values
Leadership Snapshot: Rosalie Giffoniello
A Map
A Challenge
Vision in Practice
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Articulating a Vision
Implementing a Vision
Summary
Application
7.1 Case Study
7.2 Leadership Vision Questionnaire
7.3 Observational Exercise
7.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet
References
8. Establishing a Constructive Climate
Introduction
Constructive Climate Explained
Climate in Practice
Providing Structure
Clarifying Norms
Building Cohesiveness
Promoting Standards of Excellence
Leadership Snapshot: Meg Whitman
Summary
Application
8.1 Case Study
8.2 Organizational Climate Questionnaire
8.3 Observational Exercise
8.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet
References
9. Embracing Diversity and Inclusion
Introduction
Diversity and Inclusion Explained
Definitions
Brief Historical Perspective
Inclusion Framework
Leadership Snapshot: Ursula Burns
Diversity and Inclusion in Practice
Model of Inclusive Practices
Leader Practices That Advance Diversity and Inclusion
Barriers to Embracing Diversity and Inclusion
Summary
Application
9.1 Case Study
9.2 Cultural Diversity Awareness Questionnaire
9.3 Observational Exercise
9.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet
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References
10. Listening to Out-Group Members
Introduction
Out-Group Members Explained
How Out-Groups Form
The Impact of Out-Group Members
Out-Group Members in Practice
Strategy 1: Listen to Out-Group Members
Strategy 2: Show Empathy to Out-Group Members
Strategy 3: Recognize the Unique Contributions of Out-Group
Members
Strategy 4: Help Out-Group Members Feel Included
Strategy 5: Create a Special Relationship With Out-Group Members
Strategy 6: Give Out-Group Members a Voice and Empower Them to
Act
Leadership Snapshot: Abraham Lincoln
Summary
Application
10.1 Case Study
10.2 Building Community Questionnaire
10.3 Observational Exercise
10.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet
References
11. Managing Conflict
Introduction
Conflict Explained
Communication and Conflict
Conflict on the Content Level
Leadership Snapshot: Humaira Bachal
Conflict on the Relational Level
Managing Conflict in Practice
Fisher and Ury Approach to Conflict
Communication Strategies for Conflict Resolution
Kilmann and Thomas Styles of Approaching Conflict
Summary
Application
11.1 Case Study
11.2 Conflict Style Questionnaire
11.3 Observational Exercise
11.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet
References
12. Addressing Ethics in Leadership
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Introduction
Leadership Ethics Explained
Leadership Ethics in Practice
1. The Character of the Leader
2. The Actions of the Leader
Leadership Snapshot: Warren Buffett and Bill and Melinda Gates
3. The Goals of the Leader
4. The Honesty of the Leader
5. The Power of the Leader
6. The Values of the Leader
Culture and Leadership Ethics
Summary
Application
12.1 Case Study
12.2 Sample Items From the Ethical Leadership Style Questionnaire
12.3 Observational Exercise
12.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet
References
13. Overcoming Obstacles
Introduction
Obstacles Explained
Overcoming Obstacles in Practice
Obstacle 1: Unclear Goals
Obstacle 2: Unclear Directions
Obstacle 3: Low Motivation
Leadership Snapshot: Bill Courtney
Obstacle 4: Complex Tasks
Obstacle 5: Simple Tasks
Obstacle 6: Low Involvement
Obstacle 7: Lack of a Challenge
Summary
Application
13.1 Case Study
13.2 PathGoal Styles Questionnaire
13.3 Observational Exercise
13.4 Reflection and Action Worksheet
References
Glossary
Index
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Preface
Leadership is a salient topic today. Given the volatility of global events and our national
political climate, it is even more important now than it was when the third edition of this
book was published. The public remains fascinated by who leaders are and what leaders do.
People want to know what accounts for good leadership and how to become good leaders.
Despite this strong interest in leadership, there are very few books that clearly describe the
complexities of practicing leadership. I have written Introduction to Leadership: Concepts and
Practice to fill this void.
Each chapter describes a fundamental principle of leadership and how it relates in practice
to becoming an effective leader. These fundamentals are illustrated through examples,
profiles of effective leaders, and case studies. The text comprises 13 chapters: Chapter 1,
Understanding Leadership, analyzes how different definitions of leadership have an
impact on the practice of leadership. Chapter 2, Recognizing Your Traits, examines
leadership traits found to be important in social science research and explores the leadership
traits of a select group of historical and contemporary leaders. Chapter 3, Engaging
Strengths, discusses the emerging field of strengths-based leadership, looking at how
several assessment tools can help one to recognize his or her own strengths and those of
others and then put those strengths to work as an effective leader. Chapter 4,
Understanding Philosophy and Styles, explores how a persons view of people, work,
and human nature forms a personal philosophy of leadership and how this relates to three
commonly observed styles of leadership: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire.
Chapter 5, Attending to Tasks and Relationships, describes how leaders can integrate
and optimize task and relationship behaviors in their leadership role. Chapter 6,
Developing Leadership Skills, considers three types of leadership skills: administrative,
interpersonal, and conceptual. Chapter 7, Creating a Vision, explores the characteristics
of a vision and how a vision is expressed and implemented. Chapter 8, Establishing a
Constructive Climate, focuses on how important it is for leaders who are running groups
or organizations to provide structure, clarify norms, build cohesiveness, and promote
standards of excellence. Chapter 9, Embracing Diversity and Inclusion, discusses the
importance of inclusive leadership and the barriers that can be encountered when trying to
embrace diversity and inclusion. Chapter 10, Listening to Out-Group Members,
explores the nature of out-groups, their impact, and ways leaders should respond to out-
group members. Chapter 11, Managing Conflict, addresses the question of how we can
manage conflict and produce positive change. Chapter 12, Addressing Ethics in
Leadership, explores six factors that are related directly to ethical leadership: character,
actions, goals, honesty, power, and values. Finally, Chapter 13, Overcoming Obstacles,
addresses seven obstacles that subordinates may face and how a leader can help to overcome
these.
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New to This Edition
This edition retains the chapters of the previous edition but has been expanded and
enhanced in several ways:
First and foremost, it includes a new chapter on diversity and inclusion that
examines the nature of diversity and inclusion, provides a model of inclusive
behavior, describes communication practices to improve inclusion, and identifies
barriers to effective inclusive leadership.
Second, this edition premieres the Ethical Leadership Style Questionnaire, a self-
assessment instrument that allows readers to learn what their ethical leadership
behaviors tend to be. The questionnaire in this book is an abridged edition of a
longer, more comprehensive assessment available to readers online.
Third, several chapters include a look at the dark side of leadership in terms of the
approaches explored in the book.
Fourth, new case studies, examples, and research are integrated throughout the
book.
Fifth, this edition includes new Ask the Author videos that show Peter Northouse
answering student questions.
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Special Features
Introduction to Leadership: Concepts and Practice is designed to help the reader understand
how to become a better leader. While the book is grounded in leadership theory, it
describes the basics of leadership in an understandable and user-friendly way. Each chapter
focuses on a fundamental aspect of leadership, discusses how it can be applied in real
leadership situations, and provides a relevant profile of a leader.
Perhaps the most notable features of this book are the four applied activities included in
every chapter, which allow the reader to explore leadership concepts and real-world
applications:
Case studies illustrate the leadership concepts discussed in the chapter. At the end of
each case, thought-provoking questions help the reader analyze the case using ideas
presented in the chapter.
Self-assessment questionnaires help the reader determine his or her own leadership
style and preferences. Students may want to complete this questionnaire before
reading the chapters content. By completing the questionnaire first, the reader will
be more aware of how the chapters content specifically applies to his or her
leadership tendencies.
Observational exercises guide the reader in examining behaviors of leaders from his
or her life experiences.
Reflection and action worksheets stimulate the reader to reflect on his or her
leadership style and identify actions to take to become more effective.
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Audience
A practice-oriented book, Introduction to Leadership: Concepts and Practice is written in a
user-friendly style appropriate for introductory leadership courses across disciplines.
Specifically, it is well suited for programs in leadership studies and leadership courses in
schools of agriculture, allied health, business, management, communication, education,
engineering, military science, public administration, nursing, political science, social work,
and religion. In addition, this book is appropriate for programs in continuing education,
corporate training, executive development, in-service training, and government training. It
is also useful for student extracurricular activities.
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Digital Resources
SAGE coursepacks allow instructors to import high-quality online resources directly into
Blackboard, Canvas, Moodle, or Brightspace by Desire2Learn (D2L) in an intuitive, simple
format. Instructors who do not use an LMS platform can still access many of the online
resources by visiting edge.sagepub.com/northouseintro4e.
SAGE coursepacks include, for each chapter:
A diverse range of test items with pretests, posttests, and test banks built on Blooms
Taxonomy and AACSB standards, available with ExamView test generation
Assignable SAGE Premium Video (available via the interactive eBook version,
linked through SAGE coursepacks) that includes insights from Peter G. Northouse
and other leadership experts, with corresponding multimedia assessment options
that automatically feed to a gradebook
A comprehensive Media Guide for the video resources
Discussion questions to help launch classroom interaction
SAGE journal articles to show how scholarship relates to chapter concepts
Editable, chapter-specific PowerPoint slides that offer flexibility when creating
multimedia lectures
Sample course syllabi with suggested models for structuring a leadership course
Lecture notes that summarize key concepts for each chapter
Ideas for class activities that can be used in class to reinforce active learning
Web exercises that direct students to useful websites to complete creative activities
and reinforce learning
Suggested films to facilitate showing examples of leadership in action
Case notes that include case summaries, analyses, and sample answers to case
questions
The Reflection and Action Worksheets and Observational Exercises from the text
in downloadable Word document format for more flexibility in using these resources
Tables and figures from the textbook
SAGE edge for students at edge.sagepub.com/northouseintro4e enhances learning in an
easy-to-use environment that offers, for each chapter, learning objectives, action plans to
track progress, mobile-friendly flashcards and practice quizzes, SAGE Premium Video
featuring author Peter G. Northouse, additional multimedia resources, and selected SAGE
journal articles to strengthen learning.
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http://edge.sagepub.com/northouseintro4e
http://edge.sagepub.com/northouseintro4e
Interactive eBook
An interactive eBook version of the text is available for students to provide a contemporary,
multimedia-integrated presentation for learning. In addition to a fully electronic textbook,
students can link directly to Ask the Author video, audio, additional enrichment readings
from SAGE journals titles, and other relevant resources, bringing the subject matter to life
in a way a traditional print text cannot.
The interactive eBook features exclusive Interactive Leadership Assessments to help
students strengthen their leadership abilities by providing them with individualized
feedback based on their responses to each questionnaire. After completing each
questionnaire, a student using the interactive eBook will receive an in-depth analysis of her
or his scores as well as personalized, pragmatic suggestions for further developing her or his
leadership.
You can find the eBook icons in the print and electronic versions of the text. Below is a
guide to the icons:
Ask the Author video icon
SAGE journal article icon
Video icon
Web icon
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Acknowledgments
I would like to express my appreciation to many individuals who directly or indirectly
played a role in the development of this book. First, I would like to thank the many people
at SAGE Publications, in particular my editor, Maggie Stanley, who along with her
leadership team (Liz Thornton, Lauren Holmes, Neda Dallal, Katie Ancheta, Ashlee Blunk,
Georgia Mclaughlin, and Gail Buschman) has competently guided this revision from the
beginning review phase through the production phase. In addition, I would like to thank
copy editor Melinda Masson and production editor Libby Larson. In their own unique
ways, each of these people made valuable contributions that enhanced the overall quality of
the book. Collectively, they are an extraordinary team that demonstrates the very highest
standards of excellence in all that they do.
For their thoughtful and constructive feedback on this latest edition, I would like to thank
the following reviewers:
Jens Beyer, Hochschule Anhalt Standort Bernburg
Carl Blencke, University of Central Florida
Roger Clark, NWN Corporation
Dan Cunningham, McDaniel College
D. Keith Gurley, University of Alabama at Birmingham
Sat Ananda Hayden, University of Southern Mississippi
Sharon Kabes, Southwest Minnesota State University
Lorin Leone, Independence University
Douglas Micklich, Illinois State University
Bryan Patterson, Johnson C. Smith University, Northeastern University
Robert W. Robertson, Independence University
Lou L. Sabina, Stetson University
Stephanie Schnurr, University of Warwick
Douglas Threet, Foothill College
Simone Wesner, Birkbeck, University of London
Paula White, Independence University
Cecilia Williams, Independence University
For comprehensive reviews of past editions, I would like to thank the following reviewers:
Maureen Baldwin, Saint Ambrose University
Barry L. Boyd, Texas A&M University
Susan Bramlett Epps, East Tennessee State University
Linda L. Brennan, Mercer University
Shannon Brown, Benedictine University
Lisa Burgoon, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
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Tom Butkiewicz, University of Redlands
Patricia Cane, Klamath Community College
Stephen C. Carlson, Piedmont College
Melissa K. Carsten, Winthrop University
James R. Chip Coldren Jr., Governors State University
Barbara Collins, Cabrini College
Stacey A. Cook, College of Marin
Ronald J. Cugno, Nova Southeastern University
Greg Czyszczon, James Madison University
Douglas Davenport, Truman State University
Edward Desmarais, Salem State College
Marco Dowell, California State University, Dominguez Hills
Tiffany Erk, Ivy Tech Community College of Indiana
Leon Fraser, Rutgers Business School
Jim Fullerton, Idaho State University
Jennifer Garcia, Saint Leo University
Don Green, Lincoln Christian University
Francesca Grippa, Northeastern University
Yael Hellman, Woodbury University
Vanessa Hill, University of Louisiana at Lafayette
Martha A. Hunt, NHTIConcords Community College
Jean Gabriel Jolivet, Southwestern College
Ruth Klein, Le Moyne College
Renee Kosiarek, North Central College
Robert Larison, Eastern Oregon University
Karen A. Longman, Azusa Pacific University
Maureen Majury, Bellevue Community College
James L. Morrison, University of Delaware
Terry W. Mullins, University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Jane Murtaugh, College of DuPage
Joanne E. Nottingham, University of North Carolina, Wilmington
Ramona Ortega-Liston, University of Akron
Ron Parlett, Nova Southeastern University
Bruce Peterson, Sonoma State University
Joseph W. T. Pugh, Immaculata University
Deana Raffo, Middle Tennessee State University
Melody Rawlings, Northern Kentucky University
Bronte H. Reynolds, California State University, Northridge
Louis Rubino, California State University, Northridge
Laurie A. Schreiner, Azusa Pacific University
Thomas Shields, University of Richmond
Pearl Sims, Peabody College of Vanderbilt University
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Bruce Tucker, Santa Fe Community College
Mary Tucker, Ohio University
John Tummons, University of Missouri
Sameer Vaidya, Texas Wesleyan University
Natalie N. Walker, Seminole State College
Amy Wilson, University at Buffalo
Laurie Woodward, University of South Florida
Critiques by these reviewers were invaluable in helping to focus my thinking and writing
during the revision process.
I would like to thank Dr. Bernardo Ferdman for his helpful comments and suggestions on
the Embracing Diversity and Inclusion chapter, and Terry Hammink for his assistance in
the construction and scoring of the Ethical Leadership Style Questionnaire and James
Ludema for his support.
For their outstanding work in developing creative resources for this edition, I am grateful to
Isolde Anderson of Hope College, Matthew Creasy of the University of Delaware, Jeff Paul
of the University of Tulsa, Lou Sabina of Stetson University, Andrea Smith-Hunter of
Siena College, and Douglas Threet of Foothill College.
Finally, I wish to thank Marie Lee for her thorough editing and commitment and Laurel
Northouse for her editorial insights and extraordinary support. It takes a lot of dedicated
people to write a book, and I feel fortunate to have those people in my life.
In the electronic edition of the book you have purchased, there are several icons that reference links (videos,
journal articles) to additional content. Though the electronic edition links are not live, all content referenced
may be accessed at edge.sagepub.com/northouseintro4e . This URL is referenced at several points throughout
your electronic edition.
22
About the Author
Peter G. Northouse,
PhD, is Professor Emeritus of Communication in the School of Communication at
Western Michigan University. In addition to publications in professional journals, he
is the author of Leadership: Theory and Practice (now in its seventh edition) and
coauthor of Health Communication: Strategies for Health Professionals (now in its third
edition) and Leadership Case Studies in Education. His scholarly and curricular
interests include models of leadership, leadership assessment, ethical leadership, and
leadership and group dynamics. For more than 30 years, he has taught undergraduate
and graduate courses in leadership, interpersonal communication, and organizational
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communication on both the undergraduate and graduate levels. Currently, he is a
consultant and lecturer on trends in leadership research, leadership development, and
leadership education. He holds a doctorate in speech communication from the
University of Denver, and masters and bachelors degrees in communication
education from Michigan State University.
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1 Understanding Leadership
25
Introduction
This book is about what it takes to be a leader. Everyone, at some time in life, is asked to be
a leader, whether to lead a classroom discussion, coach a childrens soccer team, or direct a
fund-raising campaign. Many situations require leadership. A leader may have a high
profile (e.g., an elected public official) or a low profile (e.g., a volunteer leader in Big
Brothers Big Sisters), but in every situation there are leadership demands placed on the
individual who is the leader. Being a leader is challenging, exciting, and rewarding, and
carries with it many responsibilities. This chapter discusses different ways of looking at
leadership and their impacts on what it means to be a leader.
What is Leadership?
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Leadership Explained
At the outset, it is important to address a basic question: What is leadership? Scholars who
study leadership have struggled with this question for many decades and have written a
great deal about the nature of leadership (Antonakis, Cianciolo, & Sternberg, 2004; Bass,
1990; Conger & Riggio, 2007). (See Box 1.1.)
In leadership literature, more than 100 different definitions of leadership have been
identified (Rost, 1991). Despite these many definitions, a number of concepts are
recognized by most people as accurately reflecting what it is to be a leader.
Leadership Basics
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Leadership Is a Trait
First, leadership is thought of as a trait. A trait is a distinguishing quality of an individual,
which is often inherited. Defining leadership as a trait means that each individual brings to
the table certain qualities that influence the way he or she leads. Some leaders are confident,
some are decisive, and still others are outgoing and sociable. Saying that leadership is a trait
places a great deal of emphasis on the leader and on the leaders special gifts. It follows the
often-expressed belief leaders are born, not made. Some argue that focusing on traits
makes leadership an elitist enterprise because it implies that only a few people with special
talents will lead. Although there may be some truth to this argument, it can also be argued
that all of us are born with a wide array of unique traits and that many of these traits can
have a positive impact on our leadership. It also may be possible to modify or change some
traits.
Through the years, researchers have identified a multitude of traits that are associated with
leadership. In Chapter 2 we will discuss some key leadership traits, and in Chapter 3 we
will explain how strength-based leadership is a variation of trait leadership. Although there
are many important leadership traits, what is most important for leaders is having the
required traits that a particular situation demands. For example, a chaotic emergency room
at a hospital requires a leader who is insightful and decisive and can bring calm to the
situation. Conversely, a high school classroom in which students are bored demands a
teacher who is inspiring and creative. Effective leadership results when the leader engages
the right traits in the right place at the right time.
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Leadership Is an Ability
In addition to being thought of as a trait, leadership is conceptualized as an ability. A
person who has leadership ability is able to be a leaderthat is, has the capacity to lead.
While the term ability frequently refers to a natural capacity, ability can be acquired. For
example, some people are naturally good at public speaking, while others rehearse to
become comfortable speaking in public. Similarly, some people have the natural physical
ability to excel in a sport, while others develop their athletic capacity through exercise and
practice. In leadership, some people have the natural ability to lead, while others develop
their leadership abilities through hard work and practice.
Box 1.1 The Evolution of Leadership
Leadership has long intrigued humankind and has been the topic of extensive literature for centuries. The
earliest writings include philosophies of leadership such as Machiavellis The Prince (1531/2005) and
biographies of great leaders. With the development of the social sciences during the 20th century, inquiry
into leadership became prolific. Studies on leadership have emerged from every discipline that has had
some interest in the subject of leadership: anthropology, business administration, educational
administration, history, military science, nursing administration, organizational behavior, philosophy,
political science, public administration, psychology, sociology, and theology (Rost, 1991, p. 45).
As a result, there are many different leadership approaches and theories. While the words are often used
interchangeably, approaches and theories are different conceptually. An approach is a general way of
thinking about a phenomenon, not necessarily based on empirical research. A theory usually includes a set
of hypotheses, principles, or laws that explain a given phenomenon. Theories are more refined and can
provide a predictive framework in analyzing the phenomenon. For example, the spiritual leadership
approach is a conceptualization of leadership that does not yet have a body of empirical research to validate
it, while contingency leadership theory has a refined set of propositions based on the results of multiple
research studies.
Not unlike fashion, approaches to leadership have evolved, changed focus and direction, and built upon one
another during the past century. To understand this evolution, a brief historical view can be helpful:
29
Trait Approach
The early trait approach theories were called Great Man theories because they focused on identifying the
innate qualities and characteristics possessed by great social, political, and military leaders such as Catherine
the Great, Mohandas Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, Moses, and Joan of Arc. Studies of leadership traits were
especially strong from 1900 to the early 1940s and enjoyed a renewed emphasis beginning in the 1970s as
researchers began to examine visionary and charismatic leadership. In the 1980s, researchers linked
leadership to the Big Five personality factors while interest in emotional intelligence as a trait gained
favor in the 1990s. (For a discussion of emotional intelligence as a leadership skill, see Chapter 6, pages 126
127.)
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Behavior Approach
In the late 1930s, leadership research began to focus on behaviorwhat leaders do and how they act.
Groundbreaking studies by researchers at The Ohio State University and the University of Michigan in the
1940s and 1950s analyzed how leaders acted in small group situations. Behavior approach theories hit their
heyday in the early 1960s with Blake and Moultons (1964) work exploring how managers use task and
relationship behaviors in the organizational setting.
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Situational Approach
The premise of this approach is that different situations demand different kinds of leadership. Serious
examination of situational approach theories began in the late 1960s by Hersey and Blanchard (1969) and
Reddin (1967). Situational approaches continued to be refined and revised from the 1970s through the
1990s (Vecchio, 1987). One of these, pathgoal theory, examines how leaders use employee motivation to
enhance performance and satisfaction. Another approach, contingency theory, focuses on the match
between the leaders style and specific situational variables.
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Relational Approach
In the 1990s, researchers began examining the nature of relations between leaders and followers. This
research ultimately evolved into the leadermember exchange (LMX) theory. LMX theory predicts that
high-quality relations generate more positive leader outcomes than low-quality relations. Research in the
relational approach to leadership continues to generate moderate interest today.
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New Lead
