Leisure Tourism: Theory And Application
Critically appraise two of the theories or concepts explored throughout this module. This should be done in the context of specific aspects of tourism considered throughout this module. (Food & Drink Tourism; Tourism Trails; Film Tourism; Heritage Tourism; Dark Tourism; The Trouble with Tourism; The Solo Tourist or Tour Groups). You may discuss any number of aspects, but they should be clearly relevant to the appraised theories/concepts.
Throughout the work, you are required to refer to a wide range of relevant academic literature and appropriate real examples which exist within tourism.
Based on your appraisal, you are required to propose appropriate recommendations which could be of value to relevant destinations or organisations within the tourism industry.
COURSEWORK
Theory / concept : tourist behaviour
Aspect of tourism : solo tourism and group tourism
Module Title: Leisure Tourism: Theory And Application
Brief
Critically appraise two of the theories or concepts explored throughout this module. This should be done in the context of specific aspects of tourism considered throughout this module. (Food & Drink Tourism; Tourism Trails; Film Tourism; Heritage Tourism; Dark Tourism; The Trouble with Tourism; The Solo Tourist or Tour Groups). You may discuss any number of aspects, but they should be clearly relevant to the appraised theories/concepts.
Throughout the work, you are required to refer to a wide range of relevant academic literature and appropriate real examples which exist within tourism.
Based on your appraisal, you are required to propose appropriate recommendations which could be of value to relevant destinations or organisations within the tourism industry.
Ensure your work follows a professional structure including contents page, executive summary and correctly structured reference list.
In week 10, there will be an opportunity for individual meetings with lecturer to discuss your plans for coursework. In preparation for this you are expected to complete the Coursework Proposal Pro-forma which can be found below.
Criteria for Assessment:
Criteria for assessment is outlined in the marking grid below.
Word Length:
3000 – 3500 words
Hand In Arrangements:
CBM831 Coursework Proposal Pro-forma
Note: I suggest you use this form to help plan and develop your thoughts on your courseowk.
1. What are your chosen theories and/or concepts?
Tourist experience and tourist behaviour
2. What specific aspects of tourism do you intend to discuss?
Solo travellers and group travellers
3. Why do you feel these specific aspects are appropriate for your chosen theories and/or concepts?
4. What specific academic literature will you use to underpin your work?
5. What specific examples will you use within your work? Who is the tourist?
All tourists are different therefore their behaviour and experiences differ greatly.
Indeed, an individual tourist behaviour and experience may differ depending on a number of variables.
In what we discuss today we must ensure against generalisations and stereotypes
The behaviour of the tourist will impact on their experience and the experience of others
Tourist Behaviour
Clawson & Knetsch (1966) identified 5 distinct phases of tourists behaviour :-
An anticipation of pre-purchase
A travel to the site segment
An on-site experience
A return travel component
An extended recall and recollection stage
Still valid today?
Another difference between tourist behaviour and normal consumer behaviour is the public/social nature of it.
Crang (1997) states that hotels, airlines, attractions, host communities are all performers on the tourism stage. I would suggest that tourists are also performers.
How does this affect tourist behaviour? (And experience?)
Emic and Etic Concepts (Comes from Research in Anthropology)
Emic the viewpoint from the perspective of the insider or participant
how would a tourist (backpacker in India, luxury shopper in New York, family in The Algarve) see their own behaviour?
Etic the viewpoint from the perspective of the outsider
how would another backpacker in India, a shop worker in New York, a family of Portuguese living at The Algarve) see the behaviour of the tourist?
The same behaviour, but seen and experienced from two very different perspectives
The Motivation to Travel Why do we go on holiday?
Not going to look at in detail here can be linked to wider consumer behaviour motivation theories and concepts
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Travel career approach (Pearce & Lee, 2005)
tourists have different stages in their travel career
Influenced by previous travel experience, demographics, contingency factors
Some motivation factors are of similar importance no matter the career stage (e.g. escape, relaxation, self-development)
Some are of more importance to more experienced travellers (e.g. experiencing different cultures, nature related)
Some are of more importance to less experienced travellers (e.g. stimulation, self-actualisation, romance)
Motivation Factors
Numerous studies into tourist motivation.
Some broad factors which have been identified within these studies
Motivation Factor Specific Items
Novelty Having fun; experiencing something different; special atmosphere of a place
Escape/Relax Resting; getting away from stress; giving mind a rest
Relationships Spending time with family & friends; meeting new people with similar interests; casual relationships
Autonomy Being independent; being obliged to see no-one; doing things your own way; enjoying isolation
Nature Viewing or interacting with scenery and wildlife
Self-development Learning new things; experiencing different cultures; developing personal interests; gaining self-confidence
Stimulation Feeling excitement; having unpredictable experiences; exploring the unknown
Adapted from Pearce, 2005,
pp. 59-60
What motivates you in your holiday choices?
The Social Role of a Tourist
Role sociological term for the position that a person occupies in society (Bales & Slater, 1955)
Deviation from expected role how do others respond?
Role ambiguity not clear what is expected or how to behave
Role distance expressing individuality by flaunting conventional role behaviour
Altercasting manipulated/persuaded to take on a specific role due to the strong presence/behaviour of another
Lots of research done in the area of tourist roles; from a variety of perspectives.
Some linked to motivations
Some focused on stereotypes of types of tourist
Some specifically linked to ethical behaviour
Some linked to how educated/intelligent a tourist is!
Demographic Factors
Like all studies of consumers, tourist behaviour can be linked to demographic factors
Key Factor Description
Belongingness Travelling in groups and seeking comfort in togetherness
Hierarchical Acknowledgement Behaving in accordance with social status
Concept of Kinen Collecting evidence of travel to prestigious destinations
Risk Avoidance Avoiding adventurous leisure pursuits
Concept of akogare Respect for fashionable Western products and lifestyle
Adapted from Ahmed & Kron, 1992
Classifying Tourists Involved in Tourism Products
Pre Travel Experience and Commitment On-site Style (Behaviour) Post Experience Outcomes Tourist Classifications
High, Committed, Planned Active Achievement Specialists
Immersed Knowledge Serious
Interpretation Skills Interested
Effortful Social Capital Generalists
Low, Casual, Opportunistic
Visual Rejuvenation Incidental
Passive Satiation Dabblers
Receiving Boredom Amateurs
Mindless routine Recognition Disinterested
In this model, no defined link between 2nd and 3rd categories. E..g Active does not necessarily lead to achievement
Adapted from Pearce, 2005 p.46
In this model, no defined link between 3rd and 4th categories. Eg. Achievement is not necessarily experienced by specialists
Social Contact
Social contact with others is core element of this :-
How tourists interact with and see other tourists
How tourists interact with service personnel
How local communities treat and are treated by their visitors
In all these aspects of contact there is potential for harmony or conflict, depending on behaviours and impacting on experience
REMEMBER THE LINK BETWEEN BEHAVIOUR & EXPERIENCE
Tourists, like other social actors, are not passive bodies pushed from place to place and from group to group by mechanistic internal forces and external factors. Rather, they are best viewed as organisers of their social world and experiences, acting out roles, communicating their identities and purposefully structuring their time (Pearce, 2005)
Social Contact The multiple perspectives tourists may have of other tourists (Pearce, 2005)
Other tourist seen as Behaviours
Positive Views Potential close friend Friendly (intimate) contact; learn about them; learn about new culture
Travel companion Partner for activities, socialise, company
Helper Source of information; share costs; lend a hand
Security guard Look after possessions; prevent unwanted contacts
Stimulation Improve atmosphere; excitement
Neutral Views Background scenery Just there; no impact
Negative Views Stranger Minor discomfort; something unfamiliar
Disturber Noise source; adds to crowd; invades privacy; causes conflict
Competitor Competitor for space, access to people, views etc
Tourist-tourist encounter reactions in diverse tourism contexts
Glasson et al (1995)
For example, in a temple, booze cruise, wilderness setting etc
This view is heavily linked to tourist numbers within a setting or experience
Links to Urrys concept of the tourist gaze (Urry & Larsen, 2011)
The romantic gaze those who appreciate settings/experiences alone or with very small groups of like minded companions
The collective gaze those seeking socially rich recreational experiences where the presence of others is a positive rather than negative attribute
Tourist Experience
A long established debate regarding what the tourist experience actually is
Considered from a number of viewpoints
I will introduce some ideas here but only a selection!
Experiences, memories and emotions related to specific place (Noy, 2007)
Interaction between tourists and destinations (destinations being the site of the experience and tourists the actors) (Stamboulis and Skayannis, 2003)
An experience has to be significant enough to be stored in long-term memory ((Larsen, 2007)
The individual pursuit of identity and self-realisation (Selstad, 2007)
Everyone experiences activities/places in different ways so the tourist experience is subjective (Pine & Gilmour, 1999)
Tourist Experience
Experience includes all stages including planning, anticipation, the event itself, recollection and communication after the event (Clawson & Knetsch, 1966)
The role of others in the experience e.g. other tourists and hosts (Mossberg, 2007)
Influential realm (elements beyond control of the tourist) AND personal realm which the tourist brings to the destination/event (includes motivation, perception, expectation, memory, emotion, self-identity, satisfaction/dissatisfaction) (Quinlan and Carmichael, 2010)
Cohens Modes of Tourist Experience (1979)
Mode
Recreational A step outside the normal and ordinary in search of entertainment
Diversionary A step outside the stress of everyday life and pressures
Experiential Aware that everyday life lacks richness, so authentic experience of society, culture and nature is sought
Experimental In danger of losing oneself and feeling alienated in everyday life, the tourist seeks to rediscover themselves in a new context
Existential A feeling that they are living in the wrong time and place, so alienated from ordinary life they seek a better existence
The Co-Creation of Tourism Experience
Strong argument that any experience is influenced by the role of the main actor and others
The experience does not actually exist until it is created when the tourist partakes in it?
In tourism the others are other tourists, hosts, ANYBODY present or involved
The main actor is the tourist who affects their own experience (and that of others) with
Their personality, expectations, etc
Their level of engagement
A tourist experience can be enhanced through planned opportunity for co-creation
Tourism The search for self or the other?
Tourists travel mainly to discover themselves (Moscardo, 2014)
People who dont travel explain that home gives them everything the need so no need to travel (Pennington-Gray & White, 2001)
Western society puts pressure on people to travel, even if they dont want to (McKercher, 2009)
People travel because there are alienated from their social groups (MacCannell, 1976)
The tourist self is changed very little by the tour, while the consequences of tourism for the native self are profound (Bruner, 1991)
All tourism experiences are selfish (Moscardo et al, 2014)
Final Thoughts on Tourist Behaviour & Tourist Experience
Behaviour impacts on the experience
Behaviour affected by who travelling companions are?
Culture shock may affect behaviour
Why does a tourist behave the way they do? (Why does anybody behave the way they do?!)
Havent covered much here but remember the behaviour of tourists towards host population and vice versa
Familiar strangers In a group of strangers in a tourism setting, who would you gravitate to? Consider when you joined the course initially!
References.
Ahmed, Z. and Kron, F. (1992). Understanding the unique consumer behaviour of Japanese tourists. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing. 1(3), 73-86
Bales, R.F. and Slater, P.E. (1955) Role differentiation in small-decision making groups. In T.Parsons and R.F.Bates (eds) Family Socialization and Interaction Process (pp.259-306). Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
Bruner, E. (1991). Transformation of Self in Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research. 18. 238 250.
Campos, A, C., Mendes, J., Oom do Valle, P., & Scott.N. (2015). Co-creation of tourist experiences: a literature review. Current Issues in Tourism.
Clawson, M. and Knetsch, J.L. (1966). Economics of Outdoor Recreation. Baltimore: John Hopkins Press.
Cohen, E. (1979). A Phenomenology of Tourist Experiences. Sociology: The Journal of the British Sociological Association. 13(2), 179-201.
Crang,P. (1997). Performing the tourist product. In C.Rojek and J.Urry (eds) Touring Cultures (pp. 137-154). London: Routledge.
Cutler, Q., and Carmichael, B., (2010). The dimensions of the tourist experience. In Morgan, M., Lugosi. P., and Ritchie. B (eds) The Tourism and Leisure Experience: Consumer and Managerial Perspectives (pp.3-26). Bristol: Channel View Publications.
De Botton, A. (2003). The Art of Travel. London: Penguin Books.
Glasson, J., Godfrey, K and Goodey, B. (1995). Towards Visitor Impact Management: Visitor Impacts, Carrying Capacity, and Management Responses in Europes Historic Towns and Cities. Aldershot: Avebury.
Larsen, S. (2007). Aspects of a psychology of the tourist experience. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 7(1), 7-18.
Lengkeek, J. (2001). Leisure Experience and Imagination: Rethinking Cohens Modes of Tourist Experience. International Sociology. 16(2) 173-184.
MacCannell, D. (1976). The Tourist. New York: Schocken.
McKercher, B. (2009). Non-travel by Hong Kong Residents. International Journal of Tourism Research. Vol.11, 507 519.
Moscardo, G., Dann. G., and McKercher., B. (2014). Do Tourists Travel for the Discovery of Self or Search for the Other?. Tourism Recreation Research. 39(1), 81-106.
References
Mossberg, L. (2007). A marketing approach to the tourist experience. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 7(1), 59-74.
Noy, C. (2007). The poetics of tourist experience: An autoethnography of a family trip to Eilat. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 5(3), 141-157
Pearce, P, L. (2005). Tourist Behaviour: Themes and Conceptual Schemes. Clevedon: Channel View Publications.
Pennington-Gray, L. and White, E. (2001). The Leisure Behaviour Paradox. Journal of Teaching in Travel and Tourism. 1(4), 77-87.
Pearce, P, L. and Lee, U, I. (2005). Developing the Travel Career Approach to Tourist Motivation. Journal of Travel Research. 43(3), 226-237
Pine, B. J., and Gilmore, J. H., (1999). The Experience Economy: Work is Theatre & Every Business a Stage. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Urry, J. and Larsen, J. (2011). The Tourist Gaze 3.0. London: Sage.
Selstad, L. (2007). The social anthropology of the tourist experience. Exploring the Middle Role. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 7(1), 19-33.
Stamboulis, Y. and Skayannis, P. (2003). Innovation strategies and technology for experience-based tourism. Tourism Management, 24(1), 35-43. The Rise in Solo Lifestyle
90% of UK adults are comfortable in their own company (OnePoll, 2106)
40% of UK adults would go to the pub alone (OnePoll, 2016)
A third would happily go out for a meal alone (OnePoll, 2016)
The stigma of doing things alone is lessening
Capacity to be alone is a sign of maturity (Storr, 1997)
People living alone make up 28% of all US households (Klinenberg, 2014)
Being alone (or solo activities) is seen by many as a positive lifestyle (both by solos themselves and non-solos jealousy/admiration?!) (Ye-Jin, 2017)
Important to note that solo lifestyle is not always through choice (Putman, 2001)
Impact on social media on solo lifestyle? Has it brought people together OR pulled them apart?
Does social media make solitary activity easier? Or does it increase the desire for solitary activity?
What is Solo Travel?
If we say a solo activity is one performed alone without assistance, is solo travel possible?
This question will be the focus of some of the tutorial
The Rise in Solo Travel
Many travel companies reporting large increases in solo travel bookings (Travelmarketreport, 2014)
Impact on the industry?
Why do people travel alone? (Will discuss in tutorial)
Solo in a group? (will look at in Tour Group focus below)
Markets :-
Single retirees
Female travellers
Backpackers? (depends on what we mean by solo)
Those at an advanced stage of their Travel Career? (Pearce & Lee, 2005)
MINTEL Report; Solo Holidays UK, October 2017 Key Findings
% Finding % Finding
15% of adults take solo holidays 63% Meeting people with similar interests was important
69% of solo travellers are single people 36% Shared dining was important
36% Of one person households go solo 85% You are free to do your own thing more when travelling on your own
48% gave reason as I just like going on holiday on my own 49% Going on holiday on your own can feel lonely at times
25% gave reason as friends did not/could not go (20% for family/partner) 45% Its easier to make new friends when holidaying on your own
20% gave reason as I have different interests/holiday preferences to my family/partner 33% It can feel more stressful holidaying on your own (e.g. safety, hassle)
49% Have taken a solo city break in last 5 years
(why is this type most popular?)
63% You can have more of an adventure travelling on your own
MINTEL Report; Solo Holidays UK, October 2017 Key Findings
Highlights concept of pure solo travel
Indicates that females more interested than males in idea of solo travel but less likely to have travelled/will travel solo
Those who have been in relationship/married longer are more likely to take a solo holiday than those who have been in relationship/married for a shorter period
In response to how confident you would be doing the following activities on your own:-
71% going to the cinema
62% going on holiday in the UK
59% eating out in a restaurant
50% going on holiday abroad (this was the lowest result of 8 activities)
Motivators and Inhibitors to Solo Travel
Will form part of tutorial
Solo Travel: A Desire for Solitude or (un)Controlled Companionship?
Very little currently written on solo travel most from a gender perspective
Offers anonymity is this still the case with social media so prevalent?
Does the solo traveller become a subject of the tourist gaze? (Urry and Larssen, 2011)
How does the solo tourist link with Goffman theory of performance?
Possible to experience solitude in crowds (a mental rather than physical state)
Solitude as the positive opposite of loneliness?
An exploratory study of links between individuals perceptions of solo tourism and their desires for social interaction and solitude Literature Review (Some Aspects)
Jordan & Gibson (2005) comment on the unwanted gaze of others in their study of solo women travellers, from a perception of being judged as sad or lonely to receiving overtly unwanted sexual attention.
Poria (2006) highlights that tourists can be conscious of others around them and adapt their behaviour accordingly.
Ratner & Hamilton (2015) raised the prospect that an individual may be reluctant to partake in a solitary activity if it was public and they ran the perceived risk of being observed and judged.
It is possible to consider a state of solitude as existing when one is in the presence of others but unobserved (Long & Averill, 2003; Detrixhe et al, 2014).
Those engaging in solo activities can often be stigmatised as lonely (Ratner & Hamilton, 2015)
Can be argued that such individuals are in fact displaying a developed sense of self as they are not in search of immediate social reinforcement (Long et al, 2006)
Velleman (2013) posits that enjoying solitude involves having awareness of enjoying ones own company. Conscious effort to entertain oneself by keeping busy actually is a distraction from solitude.
There is an evidencable increase in solo lifestyle choices, particularly living alone (Klinenberg, 2012)
Budgeon (2008) notes the importance of choice in validating and embracing singleness.
A distinction must be made between loneliness and solitude, (Goodwin & Lockshin, 1992)
Wang (2006) formalised twenty types of solitude experience, rating them on a scale of desirability (includes self discovery; freedom; boredom and alienation)
It is a reasonable assumption that solo tourists seek different types of solitude perhaps depending on their individual personality and desires
An exploratory study of links between individuals perceptions of solo tourism and their desires for social interaction and solitude Findings & Discussion (Some Aspects)
strongly suggests that a significant majority of individuals desire some degree of social interaction, no matter the level of solitude they prefer.
The study did not aim to study the degree of solitude in an individuals life; rather the degree of solitude they desired.
See paper title for aim of the research
Findings led to a proposed typology of individuals based on their level of desire for both solitude and social interaction
Next step will be to test this typology by interviewing those who have experience of solo tourism
Proposed Typology Based on Individuals Desire for both Solitude and Social Interaction
Social Seekers
Do enjoy solitude but only for short periods
Associated solitude with negative words (difficult, bored, get lonely etc)
It is possible that those such as social seekers are led towards negative thoughts if they lack the capacity to enjoy solitude. (Harris, 2017)
Broadly positive views of solo tourists (brave etc) but some negative (lonely, sad, pointless)
Negative views perhaps linked to age of respondents (Deresiewicz (2009) previously claimed that young people today cannot see the purpose of having time alone. )
Very unlikely to seek a solo tourism experience
Concern over being lonely, nobody to share experience with, unable to speak to new people (Epley and Schroeder (2014) suggest that people struggle to engage with strangers as they believe that others are less keen to connect socially than they themselves are.
Like idea of not compromising (shared with respondents across all populated areas of typology)
Sociable Loners
Exactly half (of 100) respondents in this segment
Possible that individuals within this grouping experience solitude positively as proposed by Lay et al (2019)
A frequent comment in this study shared between both social seekers and social loners was the opportunity to meet other people as a solo tourist, which links with previous research (Laesser, Beritelli and Bieger,2008; Bianchi, 2016).
Coplan, Ooi and Baldwin (2019) have previously made the case that the lack of a strong desire for social interaction does not necessarily also indicate a preference for solitude. This current research indicates the same may be true for those who do desire social interaction.
Social Ghosts
It is not a surprise that no respondent generally does not significantly desire either solitude or social interaction.
This finding does indicate the likely importance of situational context in the study of desire of social interaction and solitude.
it is possible to visualise a person who enjoys or seeks not to be alone and also desires no social interaction at the same time, in certain circumstances.
Consider the individual who is working on an academic paper but prefers to work in a public area such as a coffee shop rather than enclosed in their office. This individual is making an effort to avoid solitude but is also likely to reject any attempt at social interaction from fellow patrons. Cramer and Lake (1998).
Hwang, Shin and Mattila (2018) suggest that a solo diner for example may find the social connectedness they seek by eating in proximity of other diners who are together as a group.
Isolating Loners
This segment is where a limited number (16%) of participants placed themselves. This grouping displayed a desire for solitude and also a lack of desire for social interaction.
This might include those who are extremely socially anxious and seek solitude in order to avoid social interaction.
However, it might also include those who feel no great need for social interaction as they have a developed sense of self which does not require social reinforcement (Larson, 2016).
Views such as I greatly enjoy solitude; I find interactions difficult and exhausting; I love being alone and enjoy my own company; I often crave quiet times alone.
Several respondents within this segment stated they would struggle with social interaction with people they did not know during a solo tourism experience.
Travelling in a Tour Group
Appealing to some solo travellers why?
Is a solo traveller on a tour group what is meant by non-pure solo travel? (An alternative to pure solo travel as mentioned by Mintel)
Important to note vast differences in type of tour group?
Differ in size, target market, behaviour, experience, level of participation, level of immersion, level/type of interaction (within group and with hosts), level of interest in the destination/subject of tour (i.e. specialist through to generalist)
Better or worse for the environment and host population than independent travellers?
Opportunity to meet new people like minded people?
Importance of group dynamics
As with any tourism experience, managing expectations is important aspect
Experience (and behaviour) heavily linked to previous experience
Proposed Model of Tour Group Experience & Behaviour
C.Leith
Previous Experience & Expectations
Experience of Tour
Behaviour on Tour
Experience of Others on Tour
Others Behaviour on Tour
The Oz Parable..
Uncontrolled Companionship
Controlled Companionship
What is The Tour Guide
Information provider
Source of knowledge
Mentor
Surrogate Parent
Leader
Mediator
Culture Broker
Entertainer
Communicator
Conflict Resolver
Organiser
Problem Solver
Decision Maker
Facilitator of Social Bonding
Translator
A fundamental element of the experience (for better or for worse)
This is a list from a number of pieces of research collated in Curtin (2010)
Depending on the circumstances (and tour) some will be more important that others.
Also, the list is not exhaustive
Is the tour guide less important (and less desired now) due to rise in technology and the wish for individual experiences?
Tour Group Examples
Intrepid Travel
Evan Evans Tours – London Tours
Withlocals
Dragoman Overland
References.
Bianchi, C. (2016) Solo Holiday Travellers: Motivators and Drivers of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction, International Journal of Tourism Research, Vol 18, No.2, pp 197 208.
Bowie, D., & Chang, J.C., (2005). Tourist satisfaction: A view from a mixed international guided package tour. Journal of Vacation Marketing. Vol 11(4).
Budgeon, S. (2008) Couple Culture and the Production of Singleness, Sexualities, Vol 11, No. 3, pp 301 325.
Coplan, R.J., Ooi,L.L., and Baldwin,D. (2019) Does it matter when we want to be alone? Exploring developmental timing effects in the implications of unsociability, New Ideas in Psychology, Vol 53, pp 47 57.
Cramer, K.M. and Lake, R.P. (1998) The Preference For solitude Scale: Psychometric Properties And Factor Structure, Personality and Individual Differences, Vol 24. No 2, pp 193 199.
Curtin.S., (2010). Managing the Wildlife Tourism Experience: The Importance of Tour Leaders. International Journal of Tourism Research. 12. pg.219-236.
Deresiewicz, W. (2009) The End of Solitude, The Chronical of Higher Education
Detrixhe, J.J., Samstag, L.W., Penn, L.S. and Wong, P.S. (2014) A Lonely Idea: Solitudes Separation From Psychological Research And Theory, Contemporary Psychoanalysis, Vol 50, No. 3, pp 310-311.
Epley, N. and Schroeder, J. (2014) Mistakenly Seeking Solitude, Journal of Experimental Psychology, Vol 143, No. 5, pp 1980 1999.
Goodwin, C. and Lockshin, L. (1992) The Solo Consumer: Unique Opportunity for the Service Marketer, Journal of Services Marketing, Vol 6, No. 3, pp 27 36.
Harris.M. (2015). The End of Absence: Reclaiming What Weve Lost In A World of Constant Connection. Current. New York.
Hwang, Y.H., Shin, J. and Mattila, A.S. (2018) So private, yet so public: The impact of spatial distance, other diners, and power on solo dining experiences, Journal of Business Research, Vol 92, pp 36 47.
Jordan, F. and Gibson. H. (2005) Were Not StupidBut Well Not Stay Home either: Experiences Of solo Women Travelers, Tourism Review International, Vol 9, pp 195 211.
Klinenberg.E. (2014)., Going Solo: The Extraordinary Rise and surprising Appeal of Living Alone. Duckworth Overlook. London.
Kmet, M., (2014). Going it Alone: Solo Travel is Growing. [online]. Available from: http://www.travelmarketreport.com/articles/Going-it-Alone-Solo-Travel-is-Growing. [Accessed 4 December 2017].
Lay, J.C., Pauly, T., Graf, P., and Biesanz.J.C. (2019) By myself and liking it? Predictors of distinct types of solitude experiences in daily life, Journal of Personality, Vol 87, pp 633 647.
References.
Laesser, C., Beritelli, P., and Bieger,T. (2008). Solo Travel: Explorative insights from a mature market (Switzerland), Journal of Vacation Marketing, Vol 15, no. 3, pp 217 227.
Larson, R.W. (1990) The Solitary Side of Life: An Examination of the Time People Spend Alone from Childhood to Old Age, Developmental Review, Vol 10, pp 155 183.
Leith, C. (2020) An exploratory study of links between individuals perceptions of solo tourism and their desires for social interaction and solitude, International Conference on Tourism Research, pp 132-138.
Long, C.R. and Averill, J.R. (2003) Solitude: An Exploration of Benefits of Being Alone, Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, Vol 33, No.1, pp 21 44.
Long, C.R., Seburn, M., Averill, J.R. and More, T.A. (2003) Solitude Experiences: Varieties, Settings, and Individual Differences, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol 29, No. 5, pp 578-583.
OnePoll., (2016). Intrepid Travel Infographic: Solitary Existence. [online]. Available from http://www.onepoll.com/project/intrepid-travel-infographic-solitary-existence [Accessed 4 December 2017].
Pearce, P, L. and Lee, U, I. (2005). Developing the Travel Career Approach to Tourist Motivation. Journal of Travel Research. 43(3), 226-237
Poria, Y. (2006) Tourism and spaces of anonymity: An Israeli lesbian womans travel experience, Tourism, Vol 54, No 1, pp 33 42.
Putman.R.D., (2001). Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. Simon and Schuster Ltd, New York.
Ratner, R.K. and Hamilton, R.W. (2015) Inhibited from Bowling Alone, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol 42, pp 266 283.
Storr.A., (1997). Solitude. Harper Collins. London.
Urry.J. & Larsen.J.
