Gender Difference assignment due in 24 hours Due in 24 hours Gender Differences In Early Development Chapter 12 in the course textbook discusses the -

Gender Difference assignment due in 24 hours
Due in 24 hours

Gender Differences In Early Development
Chapter 12 in the course textbook discusses the impacts of caregivers and culture on gender development in early childhood. Based on the textbook chapter and one peer-reviewed journal article, write a paper discussing the gender differences in development from a psychoanalytic and systems perspective.
Your paper should account for or reply to each of the following:

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Gender Difference assignment due in 24 hours Due in 24 hours Gender Differences In Early Development Chapter 12 in the course textbook discusses the

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Identify a gender development-related issue of critical importance to individuals and society.
Summarize a psychoanalytic and a systems perspective approach to, and related positions on, this issue.
Compare and contrast the two theories views on how gender development occurs, identifying and explaining implications for scholarly and professional practice.
Present and defend your position as to which theory is most relevant and valid with respect to your issue as you have explained it.

Your paper should be 1200-1600 words in length and support your thinking by citing and integrating at least two peer-reviewed journal articles and at least one real life example.
Required Text
You can find more helpful items for Constellation at the following site: https://content.rockies.edu/support/tutorials/
Constellation: Mossler, R. A., & Ziegler, M. (2016). Understanding Development: A Lifespan Perspective. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc
Required References
American Psychological Association. (2011). Practice guidelines for LGB clients: Guidelines for psychological practice with lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/guidelines.aspx(Links to an external site.) (Skim and familiarize yourself with the 21 Guidelines for LGBT Clients.)
Colorado Community Media. (2007). Bully prevention part of District 28 teachings. Retrieved from http://coloradocommunitymedia.com/stories/Bully-prevention-part-of-District-38-teachings,51506(Links to an external site.)
Finkelstein, S. (2006). 20/20: Exploring sexual orientation: Gay or straight, Part 1 [Video file]. New York, NY: CBS Corporation. Retrieved from60 Minutes 8/27/06 – Gay or Straight – Part 1 of 3(Links to an external site.)
Finkelstein, S. (2006). 20/20: Exploring sexual orientation: Gay or straight, Part 2 [Video file]. New York, NY: CBS Corporation. Retrieved from60 Minutes 8/27/06 – Gay or Straight – Part 2 of 3(Links to an external site.)
National Geographic. (2011a, Apr 29). Inside the living body, video 1 of 9 [Video file]. Retrieved fromNational Geographic – Inside the Living Body 1 9(Links to an external site.)
National Geographic. (2011b, Apr 29). Inside the living body, video 2 of 9 [Video file]. Retrieved fromNational Geographic – Inside the Living Body 2 9(Links to an external site.)
National Geographic. (2011c, Apr 29). Inside the living body, video 3 of 9 [Video file]. Retrieved fromNational Geographic – Inside the Living Body 3 9(Links to an external site.)
National Geographic. (2011d, Apr 29). Inside the living body, video 4 of 9 [Video file]. Retrieved fromNational Geographic – Inside the Living Body 4 9(Links to an external site.)
National Geographic. (2011e, Apr 29). Inside the living body, video 5 of 9 [Video file]. Retrieved fromNational Geographic – Inside the Living Body 5 9(Links to an external site.)
National Geographic. (2011f, Apr 29). Inside the living body, video 6 of 9 [Video file]. Retrieved fromNational Geographic – Inside the Living Body 6 9(Links to an external site.)
National Geographic. (2011g, Apr 29). Inside the living body, video 7 of 9 [Video file]. Retrieved fromNational Geographic – Inside the Living Body 7 9(Links to an external site.)
National Geographic. (2011h, Apr 29). Inside the living body, video 8 of 9 [Video file]. Retrieved fromNational Geographic – Inside the Living Body 8 9(Links to an external site.)
National Geographic. (2011i, Apr 29). Inside the living body, video 9 of 9 [Video file]. Retrieved fromNational Geographic – Inside the Living Body 9 9(Links to an external site.)
Perry, B. D. (2009). Examining child maltreatment through a neurodevelopmental lens: Clinical applications of the neurosequential mode of therapeutics. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 14(4), 240-255. doi: 10.1080/15325020903004350 (PsychINFO: 2009-10040-002). Full text article available at http://childtrauma.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/TraumaLoss_BDP_Final_7_09.pdf(Links to an external site.)
Smith-Osborne, A. (2007). Life span and resiliency theory: A critical review. Advances in Social Work, 8(1), 152-168. Retrieved from http://journals.iupui.edu/index.php/advancesinsocialwork/article/view/138/139(Links to an external site.)
Recommended References
American Psychological Association. (2011). Practice guidelines for LGB clients: Guidelines for psychological practice with lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/guidelines.aspx(Links to an external site.) (Skim and familiarize yourself with the 21 Guidelines for LGBT Clients.)
Arnett, J.J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5), 469-480. doi: 10.1037//0003-066X.55.5.469
AssistGuide Information Services. (n.d.). Types of grief and loss. Retrieved from, http://www.agis.com/Eldercare-Basics/Support-Services/End-of-Life/Grief-and-Loss/Types-of-Grief-and-Loss/default.aspx(Links to an external site.)
Blogspot. (2011). The grief cycle and loss of control. Retrieved from http://drawingablake.blogspot.com/2011/12/grief-cycle-and-loss-of-control.html(Links to an external site.).
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2015). Mortality tables. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nvss/mortality_tables.htm(Links to an external site.)
Changing Minds. (n.d.). Kubler-Ross grief cycle. Retrieved from http://changingminds.org/disciplines/change_management/kubler_ross/kubler_ross.htm(Links to an external site.)
Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University. (2013, Oct 31). InBrief: The science of neglect [Video file]. Retrieved fromInBrief: The Science of Neglect(Links to an external site.)
Finkelstein, S. (2006). 20/20: Exploring sexual orientation: Gay or straight, Part 3 [Video file]. New York, NY: CBS Corporation. Retrieved from60 Minutes 8/27/06 – Gay or Straight – Part 3 of 3(Links to an external site.)
Gersick, C. J. G., & Kram, K. E. (2002). High-achieving women at midlife: An exploratory study. Journal of Management Inquiry, 11(2), 104-127.
Holland, J. L. (1958). A personality inventory employing occupational titles. Journal of Applied Psychology, 42, 336-342.
Infed. (n.d). Lifespan development and lifelong learning. Retrieved from http://www.infed.org/biblio/lifecourse_development.htm(Links to an external site.)
Mayo Clinic. (n.d.). Complicated grief. Retrieved from http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/complicated-grief/basics/definition/con-20032765(Links to an external site.)
Mercer, J. (2011). Attachment theory and its vicissitudes: Toward an updated theory. Theory Psychology, 21(25), 25-45. doi: 10.1177/0959354309356136 (Available through SAGE Journals).
Meridian Education Corporation. (2006). Taking a stand: The bullying prevention series. [Pdf file]. Retrieved from http://fod.infobase.com/HTTP/29900/29938%20Bullies%202006%20TG.pdf(Links to an external site.)
Moules, N. J., Simonson, K., Fleiszer, A. R., Prins, M., & Glasgow, B. (2007). The soul of sorrow work. Journal of Family Nursing, 13(1), 117-141.
National Institute of Health (NIS). (n.d.). NIH senior health. Retrieved from https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/topics(Links to an external site.)
Ornstein, S., Cron, W. L., & Slocum, J. W. (1989). Life stage versus career stage: A comparative test of the theories of Levinson and Super. Journal of Organizational Behavior (1986-1998), 10(2), 117.
Shenk, J. W. (2009, June). What makes us happy? The Atlantic. Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2009/06/what-makes-us-happy/7439/(Links to an external site.)
Siegel, D. J. (2004). Attachment and self-understanding: Parenting with the brain in mind. Journal of Prenatal & Perinatal Psychology and Health, 18(4), 273-285.
University of the Rockies. (2006). Cognitive buffers against stress [Video file]. Intelecom Online Resources Network.
University of the Rockies. (2006). Developmental tasks of the elder years [Video file]. Intelecom Online Resources Network.
University of the Rockies. (2006). Myths and realities of the aging adult [Video file]. Intelecom Online Resources Network.
University of the Rockies. (2006). Observational learning: The research of Albert Bandura. [Video file]. Intelecom Online Resources Network.
University of the Rockies. (2006). Social support and emotional correlates with health [Video file]. Intelecom Online Resources Network.
University of the Rockies. (2006). Use of reinforcements and punishment in shaping a childs behavior. [Video file]. Intelecom Online Resources Network.

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12Gender and Sexuality

iStock/Thinkstock

Learning Objectives

After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

Outline the biological and cognitive contributions in the emergence of gender identity.

Describe the effect of various social influences on gender development.

Account for gender differences in physical activity and play in childhood and adolescence.

Compare and contrast school achievement and learning among males and females.

Discuss the physical and psychological consequences of puberty.

Evaluate demographic differences in sexual activity among adolescents; explain the consequences of
teenage pregnancy.

Explain how romantic relationships and sexual orientation contribute to identity formation.

Detail the changes in sexuality that occur during adulthood.

Explain how research has helped identify important elements of romantic relationships.

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Prologue

Chapter Outline

Prologue

12.1 The Development of Gender: Biology and the Brain
Biological Influences
Evolutionary Influences
Cognitive Influences

12.2 Social Influences on Gender Development
Home and School
Media

12.3 Gender Differences in Physical Activity and Play in Childhood and
Adolescence

12.4 Differences in School Achievement and Learning
School Achievement
Self-Efficacy

12.5 Sexual Maturation
Puberty in Girls
Puberty in Boys
Secular Trends in Puberty
Psychological Effects of Puberty

12.6 Becoming Sexually Active
Sex Education
Teenage Pregnancy

12.7 Sexual Orientation
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) Teens

12.8 Sexuality in Adulthood
Sexual Response
Changes Particular to Women
Changes Particular to Men

12.9 Romantic Love and Intimacy
Attachment and Romantic Love
Pursuing Love Relationships
Desired Characteristics of Long-Term Relationships
Sexual Orientation and Love Relationships

Summary & Resources

Prologue
Bruce Jenner won the gold medal in the 1976 Olympic decathlon, and with it he attained the
title of Worlds Greatest Athlete. Four decades later, in 2015, Jenner surprisingly disclosed
lifelong struggles with gender identity, and at age 66, the desire to transition to a woman.

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Section 12.1 The Development of Gender: Biology and the Brain

Initial Hollywood sensationalism of the story shifted to Caitlyn Jenner becoming the face of the
transgendered community, speaking poignantly, and perhaps unexpectedly, to those younger
than she who struggle on an everyday basis with their sexual identity. Sexuality, a broad
term that can refer to a capacity for sexual attraction and interest, gender identity, or sexual
orientation, has been spotlighted like perhaps no other time in our history. Other stories have
led to renewed discussion about sex and gender in society. Sasha Laxton from Great Britain,
Storm Stocker from Toronto, Canada, and Pop from Sweden have all made headlines as their
parents were determined to raise them without regard to gender. The childrens rooms were
painted in neutral colors; hairstyles, Halloween costumes, and clothing were chosen with-
out perceived regard for gender standards; exposure to toys and other activities were not
limited by what was considered normal for a boy or a girl. As much as their parents tried,
however, it is virtually impossible to remove all traces of gender from society, which would
include limiting exposure to media, avoiding certain store shelves, and restricting access to
preschool and other social activities. Further, it is apparent that biology pulls in its own direc-
tion, regardless of how we try to promote neutrality.

For most of us, sex and gender are inescapably connected. It is extremely rare for a person
to be born with undifferentiated sex organs. Even when someone is born with ambiguous
genitalia, they still generally have either XX or XY genes. Biological sex is therefore not par-
ticularly variable. By contrast, regardless of biological sex, gender is much more continuous.
Some individuals are drawn quite strongly to the behaviors and activities of one gender over
another, while others engage freely in more varied activities. Like Caitlyn Jenner, sometimes
it takes many years for us to recognize how sex and gender integrate with identity develop-
ment. This chapter explores these issues, as well as concerns related to sex and romantic
relationships and their developmental consequences.

12.1 The Development of Gender: Biology and the Brain
Recall the many different factors involved in the development of the self and the formation
of personality. Gender is another key component in the development of the self, which is the
focus of Chapter 11. In psychology, gender refers to the meanings societies and individuals
give to female and male characteristics, unlike sex, which is biological. How much of gender
is dependent on biological sex is a matter of great debate. Although overwhelming neurosci-
entific evidence indicates that males and females are born different, reinforcement of gender
through socialization is robust and begins early. Messages from parents, media, school, and
peers strongly shape ideas about gender-specific behavior.

The way people define their own gender has a great deal to do with their later behavior. We
construct gender roles based on sociocultural norms of what is considered acceptable sex-
typed behavior. Individual experiences and societal expectations play strong roles in their
development. How individuals integrate the various behaviors related to gender contributes
to individual personality and gender identity. Our gender identify is a sense of the gendered
self, influenced by social expectations and situational contexts, that is developed over time.
For instance, boys and girls are socialized to dress and ornament themselves in a particular
manner, play with certain kinds of toys, and assist in specific kinds of chores. Culture is closely
tied to this process as well. Some cultures emphasize one role or activity over another. For
example, in some parts of Asia, it is not unusual for boys and men to wear a kind of skirt that

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Section 12.1 The Development of Gender: Biology and the Brain

would be unusual in Europe or North America. These factors and more contribute to how
gender is constructed.

Biological Influences
Few areas in social and developmental psychology provoke as much controversy as the rela-
tive influences of nature and nurture on gender identity. Biological intersex variations dis-
cussed in Chapter 3 further complicate the discussion. Studies show that newborn male and
female infant brains are quite different physically, before the environment has had a sub-
stantial impact (Moir & Jessel, 1992). Subsequent research has confirmed their findings (e.g.,
Achiron, Lipitz, Hering-Hanit, & Achiron, 2001). Structures like the corpus callosum (the bun-
dle of nerves that connects the two brain hemispheres) and, at the cellular level, the length
and function of certain chromosomes are indeed distinct (Hammer, Mendez, Cox, Woerner,
& Wall, 2008). Relative size differences also exist in structures related to memory, vision,
and language processing (e.g., see Cahill, 2005). Specific anatomical brain differences sug-
gest that gender is at first biologically and genetically driven; sex influences specific kinds of
gender development and behavior. Just like bats have relatively large brain centers devoted
to hearing, rats rely on smell and have relatively large olfactory centers, and humans rely on
sight and have a sophisticated visual cortex, differences in the brains of humans imply relative
strengths.

In females, the limbic system is larger and parts of the frontal cortex related to decision mak-
ing are denser. In males, it is well established that the amygdalainvolved in the fight-or-
flight response and other emotionally laden stimuliis larger (Goldstein, Kennedy, & Cavi-
ness, 1999; Ruigrok et al., 2014). It is possible that the disparities may reflect differences in
emotionality and different responses to stress. Furthermore, areas of the brain that are linked
to activity, emotion, and self-regulation appear different in male and female brains, beginning
at birth. As such, the distinctions in brain organization may contribute to sex differences seen
in infant temperament, since the average male infant is more active and fussier than the aver-
age female (Baron-Cohen, 2003; Eagly & Wood, 2013; Hines, 2005; Karaismailol & Erdem,
2013). Regardless of any brain differences between the sexes, variability within each sex is
significantly greater than the differences between them (see the feature box, Psychology in
Action: Understanding Within-Group and Between-Group Differences in Social Statistics.)

Psychology in Action: Understanding Within-Group and
Between-Group Differences in Social Statistics

It is essential to understand what is meant by within-group differences as opposed to between-
group (sometimes referred to as across-group) differences. Figure 12.1 expresses the hypo-
thetical distribution of height for 14-year-old boys and girls. At this age, on average, boys are
taller than girls by approximately 1.5 inches (3.8 cm). Typical girls can be anywhere from 60
to 68 inches tall (152173 cm); typical boys range from 60.5 to 69 inches tall (154175 cm).
Therefore, the average difference between boys and girls of 1.5 inches is relatively small,
whereas the range of heights within the group of all girls (Figure 12.1a) and the range of
heights within the group of all boys (Figure 12.1b) is relatively large. The difference between

(continued)

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Inches 63 Inches 64.5

Average height of
14-year-old girls

Average height of
14-year-old boys

Within group dierences
for girls

Within group dierences
for boys

Dierence between
groups

a. b. c.

Section 12.1 The Development of Gender: Biology and the Brain

boys and girls is still significant, but not nearly as dramatic as the differences within each
group. The effect size refers to the magnitude of the difference (Figure 12.1c). When the dif-
ference between groups is small, there is considerable overlap and the effect size is small;
when the difference between groups is large, there is little overlap and the effect size is large.
These distinctions are especially important when investigating developmental differences
between boys and girls.

Figure 12.1: Within-group versus between-group differences

Between-group sex differences are not nearly as strong as within-group differences.

Inches 63 Inches 64.5

Average height of
14-year-old girls

Average height of
14-year-old boys

Within group dierences
for girls

Within group dierences
for boys

Dierence between
groups

a. b. c.

Psychology in Action: Understanding Within-Group and
Between-Group Differences in Social Statistics (continued)

In a widely publicized new brain study, researchers found striking physical evidence of differ-
ences in how male and female brains are organized (Ingalhalikar et al., 2014). This informa-
tion appears to confirm behavioral differences (such as verbal and math ability) that are often
only observed. Brain imaging of 521 females and 428 males aged 8 to 22 years showed that
male neural networks formed superior connections from front to back in each of the brain
hemispheres (see Figure 12.2). According to the researchers, there is some indication that
males have greater potential to connect perception with coordinated action, like learning the
single task of riding a bicycle. In contrast, female brains have more neural communication
between the two hemispheres, coinciding with a stronger connection between analyses and
intuition. This pattern indicates that females might be better equipped for multitasking and
working toward solutions that focus on group outcomes. The clear differences provide addi-
tional evidence that males and females may be prewired to excel at different tasks.

Perhaps the strongest evidence for a biological influence on gender development is the find-
ing that androgens, the hormones responsible for male growth and development, have a
significant effect on gender-typed behaviors. Girls who are exposed prenatally to abnormally
high concentrations of androgens are more likely to later engage in male-type play behaviors,
compared to their sisters who had less exposure. In general, higher levels of androgens are
associated with more active, rougher play. Conversely, males who are exposed to higher than
normal levels of the female hormone estrogen are more likely to display relatively high levels
of stereotypically female behaviors (Hines, 2013; Karaismailol & Erdem, 2013). In fact, early

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Section 12.1 The Development of Gender: Biology and the Brain

Figure 12.2: Neural connectivity

These connectome maps show relatively more interhemispheric connections among females
(orange) and relatively more intrahemispheric connections in male brains (blue).

Source: Ingalhalikar, M., Smith, A., Parker, D., Satterthwaite, T. D., Elliott, M. A., Ruparel, K., & Verma, R. (2014). Sex differences in
the structural connectome of the human brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,
111(2), 823828.

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Section 12.1 The Development of Gender: Biology and the Brain

exposure to male hormones has been linked to male-typical behavior across the animal king-
dom. Researchers have discovered that sex-based hormonal influences contribute to changes
in brain structure, gene expression, and, ultimately, behavior throughout the animal kingdom
(Arnold, 2009; Hines, 2011). Because of these findings, it has been said that the multitude of
biological differences between the sexes pervade all clinical experience (Federman, 2006,
p. 1514). Nevertheless, hormonal variations that produce anatomical modifications cannot
account for the many gender differences we see in society.

Evolutionary Influences
Some observers approach the biological contributions to gender from an evolutionary per-
spective. Brains may have evolved differently due to a developmental advantage. For instance,
males may show masculine qualities because our male ancestors needed to protect their
families from harm. Females may be attracted to males activity and perceived strength in
leadership. Similarly, it is argued that women propagate the species by showing nurturance,
which begins with gentler childhood play (Meredith, 2015; Murray & Murray, 2011). Through
natural selection and the imperative to maximize fitness, separate masculine and feminine
traits became more valuable to the species.

Now, instead of genes being expressed strictly for the purpose of survival, perhaps they con-
tribute to differences in activity levels and social preferences. For instance, on average, boys
prefer more action toys and rougher activities. In contrast, girls engage in more role-playing
and quieter activities. These preferences begin in early infancy and exist across cultures (Aydt
& Corsaro, 2003; Braza et al., 2012; Campbell, Shirley, & Candy, 2004). Evolution suggests
they may have been at least partially due to natural selection.

Cognitive Influences
From a cognitive perspective, children begin to construct gender-type in the same way Piaget
would say they construct knowledge about the physical world. That is, according to cognitive
theorists, we interpret environmental clues that teach us how to act. Gender identity (or a
schema for gender) is initially acquired in the second year (Campbell et al., 2004). Beginning
at this age, children acquire beliefs and expectations about gender and are usually able to
identify the differences between boys and girls based on outward appearances. As a result, a
gender schema guides the way we view the world beginning at an early age. Because of cogni-
tive limitations, however, preoperational children have rigid ideas about gender. For instance,
a preschooler may think it is inappropriate or silly for women to wear a tie simply because
only men do that.

At around 4 years of age, we acquire gender stability. Now we understand that boys become
men and girls become women, but only so long as they act in a particular manner. If a boy
dresses like a girl, he can become a girl. Finally, a year or two later, children develop an under-
standing that gender is permanent. This is called gender constancy. Depending on cultural
norms, this is the stage at which children may begin to give up hopes of achieving success in
an area that is usually reserved for a gender other than the one with which they identify (Kar-
niol, 2009; Ruble et al., 2007). If children aspire to behave in a way that is inconsistent with
gender, self-concept and self-esteem may suffer.

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Section 12.2 Social Influences on Gender Development

12.2 Social Influences on Gender Development
The biosocial perspective suggests that physical differences between males and females lead
to distinctions in personality and social behavior. Males are stronger, and therefore they play
more physically. Traditionally, women have done much of the caring, feeding, and nurturing,
so they also engage in those activities through play and work. There is a presumption that an
interaction exists between sex and gender identity development, but it also acknowledges
that we are not destined to be limited by it (Eagly & Wood, 2013; Fisher, 2006). In modern
society, there is more flexibility. For instance, neither physical strength nor nurturance is nec-
essarily required to become a successful engineer, artist, or accountant. Men and women are
not limited to pursuing activities and careers according to their physical types.

Therefore, each individual has a broad range
of potential outcomes based on life experi-
ences. For instance, we know that sex dif-
ferences affect how adults respond to infant
behavior. Psychosocial factors continue to
operate in ways that turn boys and girls into
masculine and feminine adults, depending on
attitudes and culture. Beginning at an early
age, when children (and adults) do not behave
in ways that are representative of their sex,
they are often rejected or rebuked, and laws
of reinforcement and punishment operate to
shape gender identity. Alternatively, evolv-
ing attitudes have contributed to substantial
changes in gender roles over recent decades. These mechanisms operate across cultures and
nationalities (Pavlova, Weber, Simoes, & Sokolov, 2014; Ruble, Martin, & Berenbaum, 2006).

Home and School
Furthermore, the principal mechanism behind social learning theory is the role of imitation.
Fathers and mothers each model different types of behaviors. Fathers more typically engage
in rough-and-tumble play and mothers tend to participate in more nurturing, softer kinds of
activities. According to social learning theory, these behaviors either mimic or prescribe the
same tendencies in young children. Regardless, the behaviors are reinforced. Even among
children exposed to the wrong hormones, as discussed earlier, there is evidence that par-
ents reinforce atypical sex play. That is, girls who were exposed to (male) androgens have
been found to engage in more boy-typical play and are reinforced for doing so (Wong, Paster-
ski, Hindmarsh, Geffner, & Hines, 2013).

Although boys as young as 9 months old spend more time engaged with traditional boys
toys than with those labeled appropriate for girlsimplying a biological beginning for

Critical Thinking

If the type of parent dyad (lesbian, gay,
or heterosexual) has an effect on chil-
drens behavior, what does this evidence
tell us about the origins and development
of gender-related behaviors? What if the
reverse is true? That is, if type of parent
has little effect on overall behavior, what
does that tell us about the origins and
development of gender-related behaviors?

Section Review
Summarize the biological and cognitive factors that influence how gender identity develops.

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Section 12.2 Social Influences on Gender Development

genderboys and girls are typically offered different kinds of toys and levels of stimulation
pointing to the importance of learning factors (Laflamme, Pomerleaui, & Malcuit, 2002). Girls
more than boys are reinforced for engaging in gender-specific behavior like dress-up. And
when girls play more actively, they are met with more disapproval than are boys (Campbell et
al., 2000; Lytton & Romney, 1991). In a comparison of lesbian, gay, and heterosexual parents,
it was found that children who have same-gender parents have less stereotypical behavior.
Their children are less inclined to follow typical gender roles. Sons of heterosexual parents
demonstrate the most masculine characteristics, followed by sons of gay fathers; sons of les-
bian mothers show the least amount of masculinity (Goldberg, Kashy, & Smith, 2012).

In addition, male and female babies tend to be spoken to and attended to differently (Clearfield
& Nelson, 2006; Lovas, 2005). In one well-known experiment, 204 adults were shown the
same videotape of an infant. Half of the participants were told they were witnessing a boy and
half were told it was a girl. When adult raters assessed the infants emotional responses, sig-
nificant differences emerged depending on whether adults thought the baby was a boy or a
girl. The boy was seen as less fearful and experiencing more pleasure than the girl. The
same behavior that was labeled anger when the adults thought they were observing a boy
was more often labeled fear when adults thought it was a girl (Condry & Condry, 1976).
Although subsequent behaviors of the children were not measured, it is reasonable to assume
that different speech patterns and levels of attentiveness result in diverse behaviors. A study
that placed parents with a 10-month-old infant with whom they were playing for the first
time produced similar results. Mothers and fathers could choose between a football, a doll,
and a neutral teething ring when introduced to the infant. When parents were told the baby
was a boy, the majority of parents opted to play with the football; when parents were told the
baby was a girl, most initiated play with the doll. These types of gender-typed activities occur
with both women and men and across cultures (Sidorowicz & Lunney, 1980).

Differences in adults responses persist when children enter school. When there is a potential
classroom conflict, kindergarten teachers are likely to treat girls in a gentler manner than
boys. Fr

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