Arabic Language
In 1-2 sentences, answer each of the following questions:
1) What are the main themes of the readings? (a) Arabic Language…
Actions and (b) Standardization Actions
2) How or why are the readings useful to the way you think about Arabic culture?
3) What is one point that you would like to bring up in our discussion?
CHAPTER 10
COMMUNICATING WITH
ARABS
This chapter is about the Arabic languageand how speech is used in the Arab cul-
ture. Though you may never learn Arabic, you
will need to know something about the lan-
guage and how it is used. Arabic is the native
language of 400 million to 425 million people
and the official language of some twenty
countries. In 1973, it was named the fourth of-
ficial language of the United Nations (there
are now six), and it is the fifth most widely
spoken language in the world.* Arabic ori-
ginated in the Arabian Peninsula as one of
the northern Semitic languages. The only
other Semitic languages still in wide use
today are Hebrew (revived as a spoken lan-
guage only a century ago) and Amharic
(Ethiopian), which is from the southern
Semitic branch. There are still a few speakers
of the other northern Semitic languages
(Aramaic, Syriac, and Chaldean) in Lebanon,
Syria, and Iraq.
Many English words have come from
Arabic, the most easily recognizable being
those that begin with al (the Arabic word
for the), such as algebra, alchemy, alcove,
alcohol, and alkali. Many pertain to math-
ematics and the sciences; medieval European
scholars drew heavily on Arabic source ma-
terials in these fields. Other Arabic words in-
clude cipher, algorithm and almanac. Some
foods that originated in the East brought their
Arabic names west with them, such as coffee,
sherbet, sesame, apricot, ginger, saffron, and
carob.*
VARIETIES OF ARABIC
Spoken Arabic in all its forms is very differ-
ent from written Arabic. The written version
is Classical Arabic, the language that was in
use in the seventh century a.d. in the Hejaz
area of Arabia. It is this rich, poetic language
of the Quran that has persisted as the writ-
ten language of all Arabic-speaking peoples
since that time. Classical Arabic, which has
evolved into Modern Standard Arabic to ac-
commodate new words and usages, is sacred
to Muslims. It is esthetically pleasing and
far more grammatically complex than the
spoken (or colloquial) dialects.
The spoken languages are Formal
Spoken Arabic, a classicized style of speech
comprehensible to all educated Arabs, and
colloquial (ordinary spoken) Arabic, which
includes many dialects and subdialects. Al-
though some of them differ from each other
as, or more than Spanish does from Italian
or the Scandinavian languages do from each
other, they are all recognized as Arabic.
When Arabic spread throughout the Middle
East and North Africa with the Arabian con-
quests, it mixed with and assimilated local
languages, spawning the dialects that are
spoken today.
An overview of Arabic language usage
reveals the following:
Classical/Modern Standard Arabic:
Classical Arabic is used in the
Quran; Modern Standard Arabic is
almost the same, used for all writing
and for formal discussions, speeches,
and news broadcasts but not for or-
dinary conversation. It is based on
Classical Arabic, and is the same in
all Arab countries, except for occa-
sional variations in regional or spe-
cialized vocabulary. This is taught
far more than the dialects in Western
schools and universities. It is the
only kind of Arabic taught in the
Middle East.
Colloquial Arabic (dialects). Colloquial
Arabic is used for everyday spoken
communication but not for writing,
except sometimes in very informal
correspondence, in film or play
scripts, or as slang in cartoons and
the like.
Formal Spoken Arabic. Formal Spoken
Arabic (Educated Spoken Arabic) is
improvised, consisting principally of
Standard Arabic terminology within
the structure of the local dialect; it is
used by educated people when they
converse with Arabs whose dialect is
very different from their own. It is an
acquired skill, with no hard-and-fast
rules.
THE SUPERIORITY OF ARABIC
It is not an exaggeration to say that Arabs are
passionately in love with their language. Just
speaking and hearing it can be a moving ex-
perience. Arabs are secure in the knowledge
that their language is superior to all others.
This attitude about ones own language is
held by many people in the world, but in the
case of the Arabs, they can point to several
factors as proof of their assertion.
Most importantly, when the Quran was
revealed directly from God, Arabic was the
medium chosen for His message; its use was
not an accident. Arabic is also extremely dif-
ficult to master, and it is complex grammat-
ically; this is viewed as another sign of su-
periority. Because its structure lends itself
to rhythm and rhyme, Arabic is pleasing to
listen to when recited aloud. Finally, it has an
unusually large vocabulary, and its grammar
allows for the easy coining of new words, so
that borrowing from other languages is less
common in Arabic than in many other lan-
guages. In other words, Arabic is richer than
other languages, or so it is argued.
While most Westerners feel an affection
for their native language, the pride and love
Arabs feel for Arabic are much more intense.
The Arabic language is their greatest cultural
treasure and achievement, an art form that
unfortunately cannot be accessed or appreci-
ated by outsiders.
Arabic, if spoken or written in an ornate
and semi-poetic style, casts a spell. Hearing
the words and phrases used skillfully is an
esthetic, poetic experience, and people re-
spond as much or more to the style as to the
content. A talented orator can wield power in
this subtle way. Beautiful Arabic conjures up
images of once-memorized Quran passages
or bits of poetry, and it can be just as intric-
ate orally as the most complex Arabic calli-
graphy designs are visually. Arabs love po-
etry, which in ancient times was the nomadic
Arabs chief means of artistic expression and
still has a powerful place in their culture.*
THE PRESTIGE OF CLASSICAL ARABIC
The reverence for Arabic pertains only to
Classical/Standard Arabic, which is what
Arabs mean by the phrase the Arabic lan-
guage. This was illustrated by the comment
of an Egyptian village headman who once
explained to me why he considered the vil-
lage school to be important. For one thing,
he said, thats where the children go to learn
Arabic.
To the contrary, Arabic dialects have no
prestige. Some people go so far as to suggest
that they have no grammar and are not
worthy of serious study. The dialects differ
from each other, but now they are on the way
to becoming more mutually intelligible and
less of a block to communication. Satellite
television has exposed everyone to other dia-
lects, through programs from other countries
and through frequent news interviews, often
among people of mixed nationalities. Even
speech from distant areas is commonly heard
now. Committees of scholars have coined
new words and tried to impose conventional
usages to partially replace the dialects, but
they have had no more success than language
regulatory groups in other countries.
A good command of Standard Arabic is
highly admired in the Arab culture because
it is difficult to attain. Few people other than
scholars and specialists in Arabic have
enough confidence to speak extemporan-
eously in Standard Arabic or to defend their
written style. In Arabic, the written language
is called The Most Eloquent Language.
To become truly literate in Arabic re-
quires more years of study than are required
for English literacy. The student must learn
new words in Standard Arabic (more than
50 percent of the words are different from
the local dialect in some countries) and a
whole new grammar, including case endings
and new verb forms. A significant part of
the literacy problem in the Arab world stems
from the difficulty of Standard Arabic. Even
people who have had five or six years of
schooling are still considered functionally il-
literate (unable to use the language for any-
thing more than rudimentary needs, such as
signing ones name or reading signs).
On the other hand, the written language
is not entirely a foreign language to illiterates
or even to preschool children. They hear it
passively on a constant basis, in news broad-
casts, in speeches and formal discussions, on
Sesame Street and in childrens books and re-
cordings.
From time to time Arab scholars have
suggested that Standard Arabic be replaced
by written dialects to facilitate education and
literacy. This idea has been repeatedly and
emphatically denounced by the large major-
ity of Arabs and has almost no chance of ac-
ceptance in the foreseeable future. The most
serious objection is that Classical Arabic is
the language of the Quran. Another argu-
ment is that if it were supplanted by the dia-
lects, the entire body of Arabic literature and
poetry would become inaccessible, and the
language would lose much of its beauty.
There has also been some talk of simplifying
the language, but this is not popular either.
There is a political argument for Standard
Arabicit is a cultural force that unites all
Arabs. To discard it, many fear, would lead
to a linguistic fragmentation that would ex-
acerbate the tendencies toward political and
psychological fragmentation already present.
As one language expert said, The Arabic
language becomes instrumental in preserving
our cultural hemisphere and protecting our
heritage, religion, and values.3
ELOQUENCE OF SPEECH
Eloquence is emphasized and admired in the
Arab world far more than in the West, which
accounts for the flowery prose in Arabic,
both in written and spoken form. Instead of
viewing rhetoric in a disparaging way, as
Westerners often do, Arabs admire it. The
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ability to speak eloquently is a sign of educa-
tion and refinement.
Foreign observers frequently comment
on long-winded political speeches and the
repetition of phrases and themes in Arabic,
failing to understand that the speakers style
of delivery and command of the language of-
ten appeal to the listeners as much as does
the message itself. Exaggerations, threats,
promises, and nationalistic slogans are meant
more for momentary effect than as state-
ments of policy or belief, yet foreigners too
often take them literally, especially when en-
countered in the cold light of a foreign lan-
guage translation. In the Arab world, how
you say something is as important as what
you have to say.
Eloquence is a clue to the popular appeal
of some nationalistic leaders whose words
are far more compelling than their deeds.
Much of the personal charisma attributed to
them is due in large part to their ability to
speak in well-phrased, rhetorical Arabic. Re-
petition of refrains is common, as is exagger-
ation, which sometimes expresses wish ful-
fillment and provides a satisfying substitu-
tion of words for action.
Arabs devote considerable effort to using
their language creatively and effectively.
This is from a Christmas card I received in
English from an Iraqi refugee, who had inter-
viewed for a teaching position:
When fate bestows on a person, lost in a
distant land, a drop of tenderness, a bou-
quet of love, that persons health and
trust in others is restored.
I found in you true brotherhood,
when you planted in my heart, which
beats and which is not able to be still in
its anxieties and its yearnings, that ten-
derness.
Perhaps I will meet you some day in
my beautiful Baghdad in order to return
to you some of the kindness which you
have shown me.
May this Christmas be the right occa-
sion to realize our shared dream to build
a world driven by friendship, love, and
peace, so that the people of the earth will
be blessed with justice, democracy, and
the solidarity of mankind.
Leslie J. McLoughlin, a British specialist in
Arabic, has written:
Westerners are not in everyday speech
given, as Arabs are, to quoting poetry,
ancient proverbs, and extracts from holy
books. Nor are they wont to exchange
fulsome greetings . . . . Perhaps the
greatest difference between the
Levantine approach to language and that
of Westerners is that Levantines, like
most Arabs, take pleasure in using lan-
guage for its own sake. The sahra (or
evening entertainment) may well take the
form of talk alone, but talk of a kind for-
gotten in the West except in isolated
communities such as Irish villages or
Swiss mountain communitiestalk not
merely comical, tragic, historical, pastor-
al, etc., but talk ranging over poetry,
storytelling, anecdotes, jokes, word
games, singing and acting.4
When the American television show The
Apprentice was copied in the Arab world, it
was felt too harsh to say to someone, Youre
fired! Instead, the candidates were refused
with God be good to you.5 Any listener
understood the message from the context.
There are several expressions of goodwill
that are used to mask a different or negative
meaning.
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SPEECH MANNERISMS
Making yourself completely understood by
another person is a difficult task under the
best of circumstances. It is more difficult still
if you each have dramatically different ways
of expressing yourself. Such is the problem
between Westerners and Arabs, which often
results in misunderstanding, leaving both
parties feeling bewildered or deceived.
Arabs talk a lot, repeat themselves, shout
when excited, and make extensive use of
gestures. They punctuate their conversations
with oaths (such as I swear by God) to em-
phasize what they say, and they exaggerate
for effect. Foreigners sometimes wonder if
they are involved in a discussion or an argu-
ment.
If you speak softly and make your state-
ments only once, Arabs may wonder if you
really mean what you are saying. People will
ask, Do you really mean that? or, Is that
true? Its not that they do not believe you,
but they need repetition and a few emphatic
yeses to be reassured.
Arabs have a great tolerance for noise
and interference during discussions; often
several people speak at once (each trying to
outshout the other), interspersing their state-
ments with gestures, all the while being
coached by bystanders. Businessmen inter-
rupt meetings to greet callers, answer the
telephone, and sign papers brought in by
clerks. A foreigner may feel that he or she
can be heard only by insisting on the precon-
dition of being allowed to speak without in-
terruption. Loudness of speech is mainly for
dramatic effect and in most cases should not
be taken as an indication of aggression or in-
sistence on the part of the speaker.
In a taxi in Cairo once, my driver was
shouting and complaining and gesticulating
wildly to other drivers as he worked his way
through the crowded streets. Amid all this
action, he turned around, laughed, and
winked. You know, he said, sometimes I
really enjoy this!
Some situations absolutely demand emo-
tion and drama. In Baghdad, I was in a taxi
when it was hit from the rear. Both drivers
leapt out of their cars and began shouting at
each other. After waiting ten minutes, while
a crowd gathered, I decided to pay the fare
and leave. I pushed through the crowd and
got the drivers attention. He broke off the ar-
gument, politely told me that there was noth-
ing to pay, and then resumed arguing at full
voice.
Loud and boisterous behavior does have
limits, however. It is more frequent, of
course, among people of approximately the
same age and social status who know each
other well. It occurs mostly in social situ-
ations, less often in business meetings, and
is not acceptable when dealing with elders or
social superiors, in which case polite defer-
ence is required. Bedouins and the Arabs of
Saudi Arabia and the Gulf tend to be more
reserved and soft-spoken, at least in more
or less formal discussions. In fact, in almost
every respect, protocol is stricter in the Ar-
abian Peninsula than elsewhere in the Arab
world.
PLEASANT AND INDIRECT RESPONSES
In general, Arab speech is rich in color and
emotion. It is vibrant, and not tied down to
sterile logic. Arab culture values hospitality
and goodwill over precision and directness in
conversation.
If you ask for directions, you will almost
always get a response, even if the person
is not sure. It is more important to make a
token effort of helpfulness (even if the in-
formation is wrong) than to refuse the re-
quest (the person didnt misguide you, he
helped). If bad news is imminent, it may be
considered more polite to engage in circum-
locution rather than going directly to the bru-
tal truth. Indirect speech is also called for
when making a request of a prominent or eld-
erly person; it is a sign of deference.
THE POWER OF WORDS
To the Arab way of thinking (consciously
or subconsciously), words have power; they
can, to some extent, affect subsequent
events. Arab conversation is peppered with
blessings, which are like little prayers for
good fortune, intended to keep things going
well. Swearing and use of curses and ob-
scenities are very offensive to Arabs. If
words have power and can affect events, it is
feared that curses may bring misfortune just
by being uttered. There is no point in provok-
ing fate.
The liberal use of blessings also demon-
strates that the speaker holds no envy toward
a person or object; in other words, that he
or she does not cast an evil eye toward
something. Belief in the evil eye (often just
called the eye) is common, and it is feared
or acknowledged to some extent by most
Arabs, although less so by the better edu-
cated. It is widely believed that a person or
object can be harmed if viewed (even uncon-
sciously) with envywith an evil eye. The
harm may be prevented, however, by offer-
ing blessings or statements of goodwill. We
teach students of Arabic a large number of
what we call benedictions. Learning them
is not enough; one must also remember to
use them.
Foreigners who do not know about the
evil eye may be suspected of giving it. When
a friend buys a new car, dont express envy.
Instead, say, May you always drive it
safely. When someone moves to a new
house, say, May you always live here hap-
pily. When meeting someones children,
say, May they always be healthy, or, May
God keep them for you. All these are trans-
lations of much-used Arabic expressions.
Westerners must learn to use benedictions as
a new speech habit. Omitting benedictions
can be seen as rude.
EUPHEMISMS
Arabs are uncomfortable discussing illness,
disaster, or death. This trait illustrates how
the power of words affects Arab speech and
behavior. A careless reference to bad events
can lead to misfortune or make a bad situ-
ation worse. Arabs avoid such references as
much as possible, and use euphemisms in-
stead.
Euphemisms serve as substitutes, and a
foreigner needs to learn the code in order
to understand what is really being said. For
example, instead of saying that someone is
sick, Arabs may describe a person as a little
tired. They avoid saying a word like cancer,
saying instead, He has it, or, She has the
disease, and often wait until the illness is
over before telling others about it, even rel-
atives. Arabs do not speak easily about death
and sometimes avoid telling others about a
death for some time; even then they will
phrase it euphemistically.
Some years back I was visiting the owner
of an Egyptian country estate when two men
came in supporting a third man who had col-
lapsed in the field. The landlord quickly tele-
phoned the local health unit. He got through
just as the man slipped from his chair and
appeared to be having a heart attack. Am-
bulance! he screamed. Send me an ambu-
lance! I have a man here whos . . . a little
tired!
These are social mannersin technical
situations, of course, where specificity is re-
quired (doctor to patient, commander to sol-
dier), explicit language is used, not courtes-
ies.
These substitutions, blessings, and bene-
dictions mean that Arabic is a high-context
languageone must know the context to
fully understand.
THE WRITTEN WORD
Arabs have considerable respect for the writ-
ten as well as the spoken word. Some very
pious people feel that anything written in Ar-
abic should be burned when no longer
needed (such as newspapers) or at least not
left on the street to be walked on or used to
wrap things, because the name of God prob-
ably appears somewhere. Decorations using
Arabic calligraphy, Quranic quotations, and
the name Allah are never used on floors (un-
like crosses in floors of churches, especially
in Europe). They are often seen, however, in
framed pictures or painted on walls. If you
buy something decorated with Arabic calli-
graphy, ask what it means; you could offend
Arabs by the careless handling of an item
decorated with a religious quotation.
If you own an Arabic Quran, you must
handle it with respect. It should be placed flat
on a table or in its own area on a shelf, not
wedged in with many other books. Best of
all, keep it in a velvet box or display it on
an X-shaped wooden stand (both are made
for this purpose). Under no circumstances
should anything (an ashtray, another book)
be placed on top of the Quran.
Written blessings and Quranic verses
are effective in assuring safety and prevent-
ing the evil eye, so they are seen all over
the Arab world. Blessings are posted on cars
and trucks and engraved on jewelry. You will
see religious phrases in combination with the
color blue, drawings of eyes, or pictures of
open palms, all of which appear as amulets
against the evil eye.
PROVERBS
Arabs use proverbs far more than Westerners
do, and they have hundreds. Many are in
the forms of rhymes or couplets. A persons
knowledge of proverbs and when to use them
enhances his or her image by demonstrating
wisdom and insight.
Here is a selection of proverbs that help
illuminate the Arab outlook on life. Proverbs
frequently refer to family and relatives,
poverty and social inequality, fate and luck.
Support your brother, whether he is
the tyrant or the tyrannized.
The knife of the family does not cut.
(If you are harmed by a relative,
dont take offense.)
You are like a tree, giving your shade
to the outside.
(You should give more attention to
your own family.)
One hand alone does not clap.
(Cooperation is essential.)
The hand of God is with the group.
(There is strength in unity.)
The young goose is a good swimmer.
(Like father, like son.)
Older than you by a day, wiser than
you by a year.
(Respect older people and their ad-
vice.)
The eye cannot rise above the eye-
brow.
(Be satisfied with your station in
life.)
The world is changeable, one day
honey and the next day onions.
(This rhymes in Arabic.)
Every sun has to set.
(Fame and fortune may be fleeting.)
Seven trades but no luck.
(This rhymes in Arabic.)
(Even if a person is qualified, be-
cause of bad luck he may not find
work.)
Its all fate and chance.
Your tongue is like a horseif you
take care of it, it takes care of you; if
you treat it badly, it treats you badly.
The dogs may bark but the caravan
moves on.
(A person should rise above petty cri-
ticism.)
Patience is beautiful.
The slave does the thinking and the
lord carries it out.
(Man proposes and God disposes.)
Bounties are from God.
And finally, my very favorite:
The monkey in the eyes of his mother
is a gazelle.
______________
* The ranking of the top ten languages is: Mandar-
in Chinese, Spanish, English, Hindi-Urdu, Arabic,
Bengali, Portuguese, Russian, Japanese, Punjabi.
* For more examples, see the Mawrid dictionary1
101112, or Al-bab.com, which lists some 200
words.
Classical and Modern Standard Arabic differ,
but differences are technical.
* Most Westerners are not particularly sensitive
toward poetry. But the power of poetry in Arab
culture is well described by Saudi statesman and
author Ghazi Algosaibi: Arabic poetry was born
in an environment which knew no other form of
literature or fine art. Unlike numerous other civil-
izations which were fascinated by singing, dan-
cing, acting, painting, sculpture, and music, pre-
Islamic Arabs knew no medium of artistic expres-
sion other than poetry. To the Arabs, poetry, re-
gardless of its political and social role, represen-
ted what the other fine arts combined stood for in
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other cultures. This perhaps explains the special
position poetry occupied in the minds and souls of
the Arabs.2
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Understanding-Arabs-A-Guide-for-Modern-Times 344 Arabic Standardization
BRAHIM CHAKRANI
History of and Motivation for Arabic Standardization
Understanding the process of language standardization in the Arab world necessitates
probing into the sociohistorical factors that motivate the attitudes that Arabs have toward
their language. Records of the existence of standardized Arabic dates to the fi fth century
CE; yet it is unclear whether or not this standard is the literary outcome of many dialects
or represents one particular dialect (Hourani, 2002). Local dialects of Arabic within the
Arab peninsula contributed to the emergence of a standardized form of Arabic, called fusha
(Standard Arabic [SA], literally the eloquent language). This resulted in an unprecedented
amount of knowledge production, using the medium of SA.
Language for the Arabs played a central role in expressing and maintaining their cultural
history and was regarded as the diwan (record) of the entire speech community (Cachia,
2002). Some scholars have argued that due to the role Arabic came to play in the construc-
tion of the Arabic speech community, the members of that community possessed a more
profound and intimate knowledge of their language than did speakers of other languages
(Versteegh, 1997). Such in-depth knowledge and development of the language called for
the restriction of borrowed words, which are considered dakhila (intruding).
Standardization as a Means of Language Maintenance
With the expansion of the Muslim empire, many non-Arabs adopted Islam. These new
Muslims quickly learned SA (Cachia, 2002) as an assertion of their new religious identity.
This adoption represented an instance of positive linguistic assimilation with Arabs as
they came into contact with local languages and cultures of the new converts (Mansour,
1993). Consequently, Arabic was not only the language of religion but also a literary and
scientifi c language in the Arab world (Hourani, 2002).
Arabs noticed the introduction of lahn (deviant, divergent speech) in the speech of
the growing number of non-Arab Muslims. In addition, the expansion of the Muslim
empire marked the beginning of the divergence between SA and spoken dialects of Arabic
(Versteegh, 1997). In fact, the renowned scholar Ibn Khaldoun, considered by some
scholars to be the father of sociology (Kalpakian, 2008), argued that Arabic standardization
was introduced due to this divergence from Arabic speech norms. Ibn Khaldoun argued
that grammatical rules for SA were introduced given the growing concern for the religious
texts becoming incomprehensible due to potential language change, as these linguistic
changes occur through hearing (Versteegh, 1997). Therefore, he maintained that Arabs
codifi cation of SA was able to reverse such divergence and maintain linguistic continuity.
The task of standardizing Arabic was given to the famous Arabic scholar Ad-Duali by
the ruler of Basra, Ibn abiihi (Shehadeh, 2007), as well as to Sibawayh, a non-native Arabic
speaker, considered the father of Arabic grammar (Versteegh, 1997) and whose infl uence
on grammar continues today. Standardization stems from the need to preserve linguistic
The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, Edited by Carol A. Chapelle.
2013 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2013 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0036
2 arabic standardization
congruity and continuity of the Arabs with each other and with the past. In light of diverg-
ing dialects in the entire Arabic-speaking community, establishing the grammar of SA meant,
for the Arabs, maintaining unity, conformity, and stability, rather than asserting linguistic
difference.
Dialect Ideology
Access to understanding local Arabic dialects is only possible through the listeners ability
to understand SA, as the link between these dialects can only be established through the
attainment of the standard language. Greeting expressions such as Iraqi Arabic Sh lunak?,
its Moroccan equivalent La bas lik?, or the Levantine expression Kifak? (all translated as
How are you?) are all related to SA. These expressions would be unintelligible or mor-
phophonologically opaque to speakers of other Arabic dialects, unless they possess access
to the standard variety.
Many scholars have asserted the importance of investigation of the vernacular languages
alongside the standard language in their function and use (Milroy & Milroy, 1999). However,
given the diglossic nature of the Arab world (Ferguson, 2000) and due to the covert pres-
tige Arabs attach to their local dialects, the vernacular languages in the Arabic context
cannot substitute for the standard language. As with the Swiss German language situation
(Watts, 1999), the standardization of any one dialect to the exclusion of others would
constitute a disconnect from the wider Arabic-speaking community. Moreover, Arabs, due
to their attachment to their local dialects, do not view the standardization of any local
dialect, including their own, as capable of representing the entire Arabic-speaking com-
munity. In fact, in the 1930s, when a few Egyptians called for the standardization of the
Egyptian dialect to replace SA in Egypt (Haeri, 2003), these calls were rejected by most
Egyptians, given their attachment to SA and their desire for linguistic unity with the greater
Arab community. Arabs view the relationship between SA and the dialects as that of rich-
ness and complementation, rather than confl ict and opposition.
The Colonial Encounter
The recent colonial encounter of the Arab world with European countries and the contact
of Arabic speakers with transplanted European languages have resulted in a linguistic
domination of Western languages in the Arab world. The modernization of SA took shape
through this language contact. Abdulaziz (1986) argues that the standardization process
in the modernization of Modern Stan
