Midterm Exam for Mythology
Consider all that you have read and viewed so far this term the readings, the course videos, and all of the other content and then answer the following questions:
Based on the course material, how just and/or “fair” is the world and the relationship that exists between man and god that is envisioned in the different myths you have read?
According to the myths you have read so far, what is the purpose of creation, and does humanity have a purpose for existing?
What role does a personal sense of morality play in the course material you have studied so far? How does myth help shape an individual’s values?
How do the different types of ritual that have been created help man make sense of his place in the universe?
You can combine all of these questions into one large essay, or you can attack them one by one. Make sure each response includes as much detail as possible, and as many references to the text and the videos as possible. Follow the CWI structure, and make sure that you provide concrete support. Do not include vague examples. You do not need to bring outside material in to answer these questions; however, if you do, make sure that you cite your sources properly in the body of the paper and include a works cited page.
Provide insightful answers that are fully developed. Your submission should total AT LEAST 4 pages, typed and double-spaced. If you use full quotes from the text or videos, or any other source material, please make sure you use quotations marks and give credit to the source parenthetically: (Campbell Video), or citations for any of the readings.
See attached readings from this course.
This Norse story of the origin of the earth, sky, and humanity is paraphrased from Snorri Sturluson’s Edda, as translated by Anthony Faulkes. Sturluson lived in Iceland from 1179 to 1241, and he apparently composed the Edda as a compilation of traditional stories and verse. Many of verses he included appear to date from the times when Norse sagas were conveyed only in spoken form by Viking bards.
Odin and Ymir
In the beginning of time, there was nothing: neither sand, nor sea, nor cool waves. Neither the heaven nor earth existed. Instead, long before the earth was made, Niflheim was made, and in it a spring gave rise to twelve rivers. To the south was Muspell, a region of heat and brightness guarded by Surt, a giant who carried a flaming sword. To the north was frigid Ginnungagap, where the rivers froze and all was ice. Where the sparks and warm winds of Muspell reached the south side of frigid Ginnungagap, the ice thawed and dripped, and from the drips thickened and formed the shape of a man. His name was Ymir, the first of and ancestor of the frost-giants.
As the ice dripped more, it formed a cow, and from her teats flowed four rivers of milk that fed Ymir. The cow fed on the salt of the rime ice, and as she licked a man’s head began to emerge. By the end of the third day of her licking, the whole man had emerged, and his name was Buri. He had a son named Bor, who married Bestla, a daughter of one of the giants. Bor and Bestla had three sons, one of whom was Odin, the most powerful of the gods.
Ymir was a frost-giant, but not a god, and eventually he turned to evil. After a struggle between the giant and the young gods, Bor’s three sons killed Ymir. So much blood flowed from his wounds that all the frost-giants were drowned but one, who survived only by builiding an ark for himself and his familly. Bor’s sons dragged Ymir’s immense body to the center of Ginnungagap, and from him they made the earth. Ymir’s blood became the sea, his bones became the rocks and crags, and his hair became the trees. Bor’s sons took Ymir’s skull and with it made the sky. In it they fixed sparks and molten slag from Muspell to make the stars, and other sparks they set to move in paths just below the sky. They threw Ymir’s brains into the sky and made the clouds. The earth is a disk, and they set up Ymir’s eyelashes to keep the giants at the edges of that disk.
On the sea shore, Bor’s sons found two logs and made people out of them. One son gave them breath and life, the second son gave them consciousness and movement, and the third gave them faces, speech, hearing, and sight. From this man and woman came all humans thereafter, just as all the gods were descended from the sons of Bor.
Odin and his brothers had set up the sky and stars, but otherwise they left the heavens unlit. Long afterwards, one of the descendants of those first two people that the brothers created had two children. Those two children were so beautiful that their father named the son Moon and the daughter Sol. The gods were jealous already and, when they heard of the father’s arrogance, they pulled the brother and sister up to the sky and set them to work. Sol drives the chariot that carries the sun across the skies, and she drives so fast across the skies of the northland because she is chased by a giant wolf each day. Moon likewise takes a course across the sky each night, but not so swiftly because he is not so harried.
The gods did leave one pathway from earth to heaven. That is the bridge that appears in the sky as a rainbow, and its perfect arc and brilliant colors are a sign of its origin with the gods. It nonetheless will not last for ever, because it will break when the men of Muspell try to cross it into heaven.
Snorri Sturluson 1987, Edda (trans. by Anthony Faulkes): London, J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd, 252 p. (PT 7312.E5 F380 1987) 99
The Concept of the Collective Unconscious
CARL JUNG
Carl G. Jung (1875-1961) was a Swiss psychologist whose principles have been found
to be applicable to nearly all academic disciplines from mythology to religion to
quantum physics, and to nearly all aspects of modern life. In the following selection,
Jung discusses his most well-known (and controversial) concept, the collective uncon-
scious, that aspect of the unconscious mind which manifests inherited, universal themes
which run through all human life. The contents of the collective unconscious are
archetypes, primordial images that reflect basic patterns or common to us all, and which
have existed universally since the dawn of time.
PROBABLY NONE OF MY empirical concepts
has met with so much misunderstanding as the
idea of the collective unconscious. In what follows
I shall try to give (1) a definition of the concept,
(2) a description of what it means for psychology,
(3) an explanation of the method of proof, and
(4) an example.
1. Definition
The collective unconscious is a part of the
psyche which can be negatively distinguished from
a personal unconscious by the fact that it does not,
like the latter, owe its existence to personal experi-
ence and consequently is not a personal acquisition.
While the personal unconscious is made up
essentially of contents which have at one time been
conscious but which have disappeared from
consciousness through having been forgotten or
repressed, the contents of the collective uncon-
scious have never been in consciousness, and
therefore have never been individually acquired,
but owe their existence exclusively to heredity.
Whereas the personal unconscious consists for the
most part of complexes, the content of the collective
unconscious is made up essentially of archetypes.
The concept of the archetype, which is an
indispensable correlate of the idea of the collective
unconscious, indicates the existence of definite
forms in the psyche which seem to be present
always and everywhere. Mythological research calls
them motifs; in the psychology of primitives
they correspond to Levy-Bruhls concept of
representations collectives, and in the field of
comparative religion they have been defined by
Hubert and Mauss as categories of the imagina-
tion. Adolf Bastian long ago called them el-
ementary or primordial thoughts. From these
references it should be clear enough that my idea
of the archetypeliterally a pre-existent form
does not stand alone but is something that is
recognized and named in other fields of knowl-
edge.
My thesis, then, is as follows: In addition to
our immediate consciousness, which is of a
thoroughly personal nature and which we believe
to be the only empirical psyche (even if we tack on
the personal unconscious as an appendix), there
exists a second psychic system of a collective,
universal, and impersonal nature which is identical
in all individuals. This collective unconscious does
not develop individually but is inherited. It consists
of pre-existent forms, the archetypes, which can
only become conscious secondarily and which give
definite form to certain psychic contents.
2. The Psychological Meaning of the
Collective Unconscious
Medical psychology, growing as it did out of
professional practice, insists on the personal nature
of the psyche. By this I mean the views of Freud
and Adler. It is a psychology of the person, and its
aetiological or causal factors are regarded almost
wholly as personal in nature. Nonetheless, even this
psychology is based on certain general biological
100 Understanding Dreams
factors, for instance on the sexual instinct or on the
urge for self-assertion, which are by no means
merely personal peculiarities. It is forced to do this
because it lays claim to being an explanatory
science. Neither of these views would deny the
existence of a priori instincts common to man and
animals alike, or that they have a significant influ-
ence on personal psychology. Yet instincts are
impersonal, universally distributed, hereditary
factors of a dynamic or motivating character,
which very often fail so completely to reach
consciousness that modern psychotherapy is faced
with the task of helping the patient to become
conscious of them. Moreover, the instincts are not
vague and indefinite by nature, but are specifically
formed motive forces which, long before there is
any consciousness, and in spite of any degree of
consciousness later on, pursue their inherent goals.
Consequently they form very close analogies to the
archetypes, so close, in fact, that there is good
reason for supposing that the archetypes are the
unconscious images of the instincts themselves, in
other words, that they are patterns of instinctual
behaviour.
The hypothesis of the collective unconscious
is, therefore, no more daring than to assume there
are instincts. One admits readily that human activity
is influenced to a high degree by instincts, quite
apart from the rational motivations of the con-
scious mind. So if the assertion is made that our
imagination, perception, and thinking are likewise
influenced by in-born and universally present
formal elements, it seems to me that a normally
functioning intelligence can discover in this idea just
as much or just as little mysticism as in the theory
of instincts. Although this reproach of mysticism
has frequently been leveled at my concept, I must
emphasize yet again that the concept of the
collective unconscious is neither a speculative nor a
philosophical but an empirical matter. The question
is simply this: are there or are there not uncon-
scious, universal forms of this kind? If they exist,
then there is a region of the psyche which one can
call the collective unconscious. It is true that the
diagnosis of the collective unconscious is not
always an easy task. It is not sufficient to point out
the often obviously archetypal nature of uncon-
scious products, for these can just as well be
derived from acquisitions through language and
education. Cryptomnesia should also be ruled out,
which it is almost impossible to do in certain cases.
In spite of all these difficulties, there remain
enough individual instances showing the autoch-
thonous revival of mythological motifs to put the
matter beyond any reasonable doubt. But if such
an unconscious exists at all, psychological explana-
tion must take account of it and submit certain
alleged personal aetiologies to sharper criticism.
What I mean can perhaps best be made clear
by a concrete example. You have probably read
Freuds discussion1 of a certain picture by
Leonardo da Vinci: St. Anne with the Virgin Mary
and the Christ-child. Freud interprets this remark-
able picture in terms of the fact that Leonardo
himself had two mothers. This causality is per-
sonal. We shall not linger over the fact that this
picture is far from unique, nor over the minor
inaccuracy that St. Anne happens to be the grand-
mother of Christ and not, as required by Freuds
interpretation, the mother, but shall simply point
out that interwoven with the apparently personal
psychology there is an impersonal motif well
known to us from other fields. This is the motif
of the dual mother, an archetype to be found in
many variants in the field of mythology and
comparative religion and forming the basis of
numerous representations collectives. I might
mention, for instance, the motif of the dual descent,
that is, descent from human and divine parents, as
in the case of Heracles, who received immortality
through being unwittingly adopted by Hera. What
was a myth in Greece was actually a ritual in
Egypt: Pharaoh was both human and divine by
nature. In the birth chambers of the Egyptian
temples Pharaohs second, divine conception and
birth is depicted on the walls; he is twice-born.
It is an idea that underlies all rebirth mysteries,
Christianity included. Christ himself is twice-
born: through his baptism in the Jordan he was
regenerated and reborn from water and spirit.
Consequently, in the Roman liturgy the font is
designated the uterus ecclesiae, and, as you can
read in the Roman missal, it is called this even
today, in the benediction of the font on Holy
Saturday before Easter. Further, according to an
early Christian-Gnostic idea, the spirit which
appeared in the form of a dove was interpreted as
Sophia-SapientiaWisdom and the Mother of
101
Christ. Thanks to this motif of the dual birth,
children today, instead of having good and evil
fairies who magically adopt them at birth with
blessings or curses, are given sponsorsa god-
father and a godmother.
The idea of a second birth is found at all
times and in all places. In the earliest beginnings of
medicine it was a magical means of healing; in
many religions it is the central mystical experience;
it is the key idea in medieval, occult philosophy,
and, last but not least, it is an infantile fantasy
occurring in numberless children, large and small,
who believe that their parents are not their real
parents but merely foster-parents to whom they
were handed over. Benvenuto Cellini also had this
idea, as he himself relates in his autobiography.
Now it is absolutely out of the question that
all the individuals who believe in a dual descent
have in reality always had two mothers, or con-
versely that those few who shared Leonardos fate
have infected the rest of humanity with their
complex. Rather, one cannot avoid the assumption
that the universal occurrence of the dual-birth
motif together with the fantasy of the two
mothers answers an omnipresent human need
which is reflected in these motifs. If Leonardo da
Vinci did in fact portray his two mothers in St.
Anne and Marywhich I doubthe nonetheless
was only expressing something which countless
millions of people before and after him have
believed. The vulture symbol (which Freud also
discusses in the work mentioned) makes this view
all the more plausible. With some justification he
quotes as the source of the symbol the Hieroglyphica
of Horapollo, a book much in use in Leonardos
time. There you read that vultures are female only
and symbolize the mother. They conceive through
the wind (pneuma). This word took on the meaning
of spirit chiefly under the influence of Christian-
ity. Even in the account of the miracle at Pentecost
the pneuma still has the double meaning of wind
and spirit. This fact, in my opinion, points without
doubt to Mary, who, a virgin by nature, conceived
through the pneuma, like a vulture. Furthermore,
according to Horapollo, the vulture also symbol-
izes Athene, who sprang, unbegotten, directly from
the head of Zeus, was a virgin, and knew only
spiritual motherhood. All this is really an allusion to
Mary and the rebirth motif. There is not a shadow
of evidence that Leonardo meant anything else by
his picture. Even if it is correct to assume that he
identified himself with the Christ-child, he was in
all probability representing the mythological dual-
mother motif and by no means his own personal
prehistory. And what about all the other artists
who painted the same theme? Surely not all of
them had two mothers?
Let us now transpose Leonardos case to the
field of the neuroses, and assume that a patient
with a mother complex is suffering from the
delusion that the cause of his neurosis lies in his
having really had two mothers. The personal
interpretation would have to admit that he is
rightand yet it would be quite wrong. For in
reality the cause of his neurosis would lie in the
reactivation of the dual-mother archetype, quite
regardless of whether he had one mother or two
mothers, because, as we have seen, this archetype
functions individually and historically without any
reference to the relatively rare occurrence of dual
motherhood.
In such a case, it is of course tempting to
presuppose so simple and personal a cause, yet the
hypothesis is not only inexact but totally false. It is
admittedly difficult to understand how a dual-
mother motifunknown to a physician trained
only in medicinecould have so great a determin-
ing power as to produce the effect of a traumatic
condition. But if we consider the tremendous
powers that lie hidden in the mythological and
religious sphere in man, the aetiological significance
of the archetype appears less fantastic. In numer-
ous cases of neurosis the cause of the disturbance
lies in the very fact that the psychic life of the
patient lacks the co-operation of these motive
forces. Nevertheless a purely personalistic psy-
chology, by reducing everything to personal causes,
tries its level best to deny the existence of arche-
typal motifs and even seeks to destroy them by
personal analysis. I consider this a rather dangerous
procedure which cannot be justified medically.
Today you can judge better than you could twenty
years ago the nature of the forces involved. Can
we not see how a whole nation is reviving an
archaic symbol, yes, even archaic religious forms,
and how this mass emotion is influencing and
revolutionizing the life of the individual in a
catastrophic manner? The man of the past is alive
Carl Jung
102 Understanding Dreams
in us today to a degree undreamt of before the
war, and in the last analysis what is the fate of
great nations but a summation of the psychic
changes in individuals?
So far as a neurosis is really only a private
affair, having its roots exclusively in personal
causes, archetypes play no role at all. But if it is a
question of a general incompatibility or an other-
wise injurious condition productive of neuroses in
relatively large numbers of individuals, then we
must assume the presence of constellated arche-
types. Since neuroses are in most cases not just
private concerns, but social phenomena, we must
assume that archetypes are constellated in these
cases too. The archetype corresponding to the
situation is activated, and as a result those explosive
and dangerous forces hidden in the archetype
come into action, frequently with unpredictable
consequences. There is no lunacy people under the
domination of an archetype will not fall a prey to.
If thirty years ago anyone had dared to predict
that our psychological development was tending
towards a revival of the medieval persecutions of
the Jews, that Europe would again tremble before
the Roman fasces and the tramp of legions, that
people would once more give the Roman salute,
as two thousand years ago, and that instead of the
Christian Cross an archaic swastika would lure
onward millions of warriors ready for death
why, that man would have been hooted at as a
mystical fool. And today? Surprising as it may
seem, all this absurdity is a horrible reality. Private
life, private aetiologies, and private neuroses have
become almost a fiction in the world of today.
The man of the past who lived in a world of
archaic representations collectives has risen again
into very visible and painfully real life, and this not
only in a few unbalanced individuals but in many
millions of people.
There are as many archetypes as there are
typical situations in life. Endless repetition has
engraved these experiences into our psychic
constitution, not in the form of images filled with
content, but at first only as forms without content,
representing merely the possibility of a certain type
of perception and action. When a situation occurs
which corresponds to a given archetype, that
archetype becomes activated and a compulsiveness
appears, which, like an instinctual drive, gains its
way against all reason and will, or else produces a
conflict of pathological dimensions, that is to say, a
neurosis.
3. Method of Proof
We must now turn to the question of how
the existence of archetypes can be proved. Since
archetypes are supposed to produce certain
psychic forms, we must discuss how and where
one can get hold of the material demonstrating
these forms. The main source, then, is dreams,
which have the advantage of being involuntary,
spontaneous products of the unconscious psyche
and are therefore pure products of nature not
falsified by any conscious purpose. By questioning
the individual one can ascertain which of the
motifs appearing in the dream are known to him.
From those which are unknown to him we must
naturally exclude all motifs which might be known
to him, as for instanceto revert to the case of
Leonardothe vulture symbol. We are not sure
whether Leonardo took this symbol from
Horapollo or not, although it would have been
perfectly possible for an educated person of that
time, because in those days artists were distin-
guished for their wide knowledge of the humani-
ties. Therefore, although the bird motif is an
archetype par excellence, its existence in Leonardos
fantasy would still prove nothing. Consequently, we
must look for motifs which could not possibly be
known to the dreamer and yet behave functionally
in his dream in such a manner as to coincide with
the functioning of the archetype known from
historical sources.
Another source for the material we need is to
he found in active imagination. By this I mean a
sequence of fantasies produced by deliberate
concentration. I have found that the existence of
unrealized, unconscious fantasies increases the
frequency and intensity of dreams, and that when
these fantasies are made conscious the dreams
change their character and become weaker and less
frequent. From this I have drawn the conclusion
that dreams often contain fantasies which want
to become conscious. The sources of dreams are
often repressed instincts which have a natural
tendency to influence the conscious mind. In cases
of this sort, the patient is simply given the task of
contemplating any one fragment of fantasy that
103
seems significant to hima chance idea, perhaps,
or something he has become conscious of in a
dreamuntil its context becomes visible, that is to
say, the relevant associative material in which it is
embedded. It is not a question of the free
association recommended by Freud for the
purpose of dream-analysis, but of elaborating the
fantasy by observing the further fantasy material
that adds itself to the fragment in a natural manner.
This is not the place to enter upon a technical
discussion of the method. Suffice it to say that the
resultant sequence of fantasies relieves the uncon-
scious and produces material rich in archetypal
images and associations. Obviously, this is a
method that can only be used in certain carefully
selected cases. The method is not entirely without
danger, because it may carry the patient too far
away from reality. A warning against thoughtless
application is therefore in place.
Finally, very interesting sources of archetypal
material are to be found in the delusions of
paranoiacs, the fantasies observed in trance-states,
and the dreams of early childhood, from the third
to the fifth year. Such material is available in
profusion, but it is valueless unless one can adduce
convincing mythological parallels. It does not, of
course, suffice simply to connect a dream about a
snake with the mythological occurrence of snakes,
for who is to guarantee that the functional meaning
of the snake in the dream is the same as in the
mythological setting? In order to draw a valid
parallel, it is necessary to know the functional
meaning of the individual symbol, and then to find
out whether the apparently parallel mythological
symbol has a similar context and therefore the
same functional meaning. Establishing such facts
not only requires lengthy and wearisome re-
searches, but is also an ungrateful subject for
demonstration. As the symbols must not be torn
out of their context, one has to launch forth into
exhaustive descriptions, personal as well as
symbological, and this is practically impossible in
the framework of a lecture. I have repeatedly tried
it at the risk of sending one half of my audience
to sleep.
4. An Example
I am choosing as an example a case which,
though already published, I use again because its
brevity makes it peculiarly suitable for illustration.
Moreover, I can add certain remarks which were
omitted in the previous publication.2
About 1906 I came across a very curious
delusion in a paranoid schizophrenic who had
been interned for many years. The patient had
suffered since his youth and was incurable. He had
been educated at a State school and been em-
ployed as a clerk in an office. He had no special
gifts, and I myself knew nothing of mythology or
archaeology in those days, so the situation was not
in any way suspect. One day I found the patient
standing at the window, wagging his head and
blinking into the sun. He told me to do the same,
for then I would see something very interesting.
When I asked him what he saw, he was astonished
that I could see nothing, and said: Surely you see
the suns peniswhen I move my head to and fro,
it moves too, and that is where the wind comes
from. Naturally I did not under-stand this strange
idea in the least, but I made a note of it. Then
about four years later, during my mythological
studies, I came upon a book by the late Albrecht
Dieterich,3 the well-known philologist, which
threw light on this fantasy. The work, published in
1910, deals with a Greek papyrus in the
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. Dieterich believed he
had discovered a Mithraic ritual in one part of the
text. The text is undoubtedly a religious prescrip-
tion for carrying out certain incantations in which
Mithras is named. It comes from the Alexandrian
school of mysticism and shows affinities with
certain passages in the Leiden papyri and the
Corpus Hermeticum. In Dieterichs text we read the
following directions:
Draw breath from the rays, draw in three
times as strongly as you can and you will feel
yourself raised up and walking towards the
height, and you will seem to be in the middle
of the aerial region. . . . The path of the visible
gods will appear through the disc of the sun,
who is God my father. Likewise the so-called
tube, the origin of the ministering wind. For
you will see hanging down from the disc of
the sun something that looks like a tube. And
towards the regions westward it is as though
there were an infinite east wind. But if the
other wind should prevail towards the regions
of the east, you will in like manner see the
vision veering in that directions.4
Carl Jung
104 Understanding Dreams
It is obviously the authors intention to enable
the reader to experience the vision which he had,
or which at least he believes in. The reader is to be
initiated into the inner religious experience either of
the author, orwhat seems more likelyof one
of those mystic communities of which Philo
Judaeus gives contemporary accounts. The fire- or
sun-god here invoked is a figure which has close
historical parallels, for instance with the Christ-
figure of the Apocalypse. It is therefore a
representation collective, as are also the ritual
actions described, such as the imitating of animal
noises, etc. The vision is embedded in a religious
context of a distinctly ecstatic nature and describes
a kind of initiation into mystic experience of the
Deity.
Our patient was about ten years older than I.
In his megalomania, he thought he was God and
Christ in one person. His attitude towards me was
patronizing; he liked me probably because I was
the only person with any sympathy for his abstruse
ideas. His delusions were mainly religious, and
when he invited me to blink into the sun like he
did and waggle my head he obviously wanted to
let me share his vision. He played the role of the
mystic sage and I was the neophyte. He felt he was
the sun-god himself, creating the wind by wagging
his head to and fro. The ritual transformation into
the Deity is attested by Apuleius in the Isis myster-
ies, and moreover in the form of a Helios apo-
theosis. The meaning of the ministering wind is
probably the same as the procreative pneuma,
which streams from the sun-god into the soul and
fructifies it. The association of sun and wind
frequently occurs in ancient symbolism.
It must now be shown that this is not a
purely chance coincidence of two isolated cases.
We must therefore show that the idea of a wind-
tube connected with God or the sun exists inde-
pendently of these two testimonies and that it
occurs at other times and in other places. Now
there are, as a matter of fact, medieval paintings
that depict the fructification of Mary with a tube
or hose-pipe coming down from the throne of
God and passing into her body, and we can see
the dove or the Christ-child flying down it. The
dove represents the fructifying agent, the wind of
the Holy Ghost.
Now it is quite out of the question that the
patient could have had any knowledge whatever
of a Greek papyrus published four years later, and
it is in the highest degree unlikely that his vision had
anything to do with the rare medieval representa-
tions of the Conception, even if through some
incredibly improbable chance he had ever seen a
copy of such a painting. The patient was certified
in his early twenties. He had never traveled. And
there is no such picture in the public art gallery in
Zurich, his native town.
I mention this case not in order to prove that
the vision is an archetype but only to show you my
method of procedure in the simplest possible
form. If we had only such cases, the task of
investigation would be relatively easy, but in reality
the proof is much more complicated. First of all,
certain symbols have to be isolated clearly enough
to be recognizable as typical phenomena, not just
matters of chance. This is done by examining a
series of dreams, say a few hundred, for typical
figures, and by observing their development in the
series. The same method can be applied to the
products of active imagination. In this way it is
possible to establish certain continuities or modula-
tions of one and the same figure. You can select
any figure which gives the impression of being an
archetype by its behaviour in the series of dreams
or visions. If the material at ones disposal has been
well observed and is sufficiently ample, one can
discover interesting facts about the variations
undergone by a single type. Not only the type itself
but its variants too can be substantiated by evi-
dence from comparative mythology and ethnol-
ogy. I have described the method of investigation
elsewhere5 and have also furnished the necessary
case material.
NOTES
1. Sigmund Freud, Leonardo da Vinci and a
Memory of His Childhood, sec. IV.
2. Wandlungen and Symbole der Libido (orig.
1912). [Cf. the revised edition, Symbols of Transfor-
mation, pars. 149ff., 223.]
3. Eine Mithrasliturgie.
4. Ibid., pp 6 ff.
5. Psychology and Alchemy, Part II. Archetypes
Carl Jung first applied the term archetype to literature. He recognized that there were universal patterns in
all stories and mythologies regardless of culture or historical period and hypothesized that part of the
human mind contained a collective unconscious shared by all members of the human species, a sort of
universal, primal memory. Joseph Campbell took Jungs ideas and applied them to world mythologies. In A
Hero with a Thousand Faces, among other works, he refined the concept of he
