Due Tomorrow
Chapter 4 Dr. Santos describes the five steps of the crime analysis process. Describe each of the five steps, identify which you feel is the most important, and explain why. Be sure to note any pitfalls that may occur during each step.
Feel free to locate other resources pertaining to the crime analysis process. If you incorporate them into your response be sure to provide the proper citation in APA format.
Please write out your answers in complete sentences, in paragraph form, double spaced and limit your response to 500-words
Crime Analysis With Crime Mapping
2
3
Crime Analysis With Crime Mapping
Rachel Boba Santos
Radford University
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FOR INFORMATION:
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Brief Contents
Preface
About the Author
Part I: Foundations of Crime Analysis
Chapter 1: Crime Analysis and the Profession
Chapter 2: Theoretical Foundations of Crime Analysis
Chapter 3: Evidence-Based Policing and the Role of Crime Analysis
Part II: Crime Analysis Process, Data, and Purpose
Chapter 4: Crime Analysis Process and Application
Chapter 5: Crime Analysis Data and Technology
Chapter 6: Geographic Data and Crime Mapping
Chapter 7: Crime Analysis Purpose and Audience
Part III: Tactical Crime Analysis
Chapter 8: Repeat Incidents and Tactical Data Collection
Chapter 9: Pattern Identification Process
Chapter 10: Identifying Meaningful and Useful Patterns
Chapter 11: Describing and Disseminating Known Patterns
Part IV: Strategic Crime Analysis
Chapter 12: Analyzing Problems, Process and Statistics
Chapter 13: Analyzing Problems, Application of Techniques, Part I
Chapter 14: Analyzing Problems, Application of Techniques, Part II
Chapter 15: Strategic Crime Analysis Results and Dissemination
Part V: Administrative Crime Analysis
Chapter 16: Administrative Crime Analysis: Crime Analysis for Accountability
Glossary
References
Index
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Detailed Contents
Preface
About the Author
Part I: Foundations of Crime Analysis
Chapter 1: Crime Analysis and the Profession
Definition of Crime Analysis
Foundation of the Definition
Crime Analysis Definition
Definitions of GIS and Crime Mapping
History of Crime Analysis
Beginnings of Crime Analysis
United States: 1900 to 1970
United States: 1970 to 2000
History of Crime Mapping
Beginnings of Crime Mapping
United States: 1900 to 1970
United States: 1970 to 2000
Research on Crime Analysis and Crime Mapping: 2000 to Present
Crime Analysis as a Career Track
Crime Analyst Qualifications and Job Descriptions
Interns/Volunteers
Crime Analysis Assistant/Technician
Entry-Level Crime Analyst
Experienced Crime Analyst
Specialty Crime Analyst
Crime Analysis Supervisor
Embedded Criminologist
CAU Organizational Chart
Developing and Improving a Crime Analysis Unit
Crime Analysis Profiles
Challenges and the Future of Crime Analysis
Summary Points
Exercises
Chapter 2: Theoretical Foundations of Crime Analysis
Environmental Criminology
Problem Analysis Triangle
Rational Choice Theory
Crime Pattern Theory
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Routine Activities Theory
Law of Crime Concentration
Repeat Victimization, Near Repeats, and the 80/20 Rule
Situational Crime Prevention
Displacement and Diffusion of Benefits
Displacement of Crime
Diffusion of Benefits
Opportunity
Summary Points
Exercises
Chapter 3: Evidence-Based Policing and the Role of Crime Analysis
Research on Crime Analysis and Crime Reduction
Standard Model of Policing
Community Policing
Problem-Oriented Policing
Hot Spots Policing
Focused Deterrence
Disorder Policing
Compstat
Intelligence-Led Policing
Predictive Policing
Conclusions About Police Effectiveness and Crime Analysis
Stratified Policing: Framework for Crime Analysis
Problem Stratification
Immediate Problems
Short-Term Problems
Long-Term Problems
Stratification of Police Responsibility
Stratification of Accountability and Evaluation
Conclusion
Summary Points
Exercises
Part II: Crime Analysis Process, Data, and Purpose
Chapter 4: Crime Analysis Process and Application
The Crime Analysis Process
Collection
Collation
Analysis
Data Modification Subcycle
Dissemination
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Feedback
Summary
Types of Crime Analysis
Crime Intelligence Analysis
Tactical Crime Analysis
Strategic Crime Analysis
Administrative Crime Analysis
Not Types of Crime Analysis
Crime Mapping by Type of Analysis
Summary Points
Exercises
Chapter 5: Crime Analysis Data and Technology
Key Terms
Data Matrix
Database
Geographic Data
Tabular Data
Secondary Data
Primary Data
Computer-Aided Dispatch System
Records Management System
Agency Management System
Information-Sharing Platforms
Jail Management System (JMS)
Criminal Justice Information Services (CJIS)
National Crime Information Center (NCIC)
Geographic Data System
Databases Used in Crime Analysis
Crime Incidents
Arrests
Calls for Service
Traffic Crashes
Other Databases
Primary Data Collection
Data Considerations
Reported Activity
Local and Federal Crime Data Standards
Using Call for Service Data to Study Crime Problems
Using Arrest Data to Study Crime Problems and Offenders
Data Integrity
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Hardware and Software Considerations
Summary Points
Exercises
Chapter 6: Geographic Data and Crime Mapping
Geographic Data
Vector Data
Raster Data
Projections
Coordinate Systems
Scale
Getting Events on a Map
Crime Mapping Techniques
Types of Descriptive Crime Mapping
Single-Symbol Mapping
Buffers
Graduated Mapping
Chart Mapping
Interactive Crime Mapping
Methods for Descriptive Crime Mapping
By Category
By Statistical Classification
By Manual Method
Classification Guidelines and Summary
Analytical Mapping: Density Mapping
Summary Points
Exercises
Chapter 7: Crime Analysis Purpose and Audience
Crime Analysis Purpose
Situational Awareness
Crime Reduction
Contrasting the Purposes of Crime Analysis Results
Crime Analysis Audiences
Crime Analysis Typology
Situational Awareness Examples
Immediate
Operational
Management
Command
Short-Term
Operational
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Management
Command
Long-Term
Operational
Management
Command
Crime Reduction Examples
Immediate
Operational
Management
Command
Short-Term
Operational
Management
Command
Long-Term
Operational
Management
Command
Summary Points
Exercises
Part III: Tactical Crime Analysis
Chapter 8: Repeat Incidents and Tactical Data Collection
Repeat Incidents
Repeat Incident Data
Repeat Incident Location Report
Summary
Collection and Collation of Tactical Crime Analysis Data
Crime Report Data
Modus Operandi
Persons Involved in the Crime
Vehicle Involved in the Crime
Field Information
Summary Points
Exercises
Chapter 9: Pattern Identification Process
Pattern Identification Methodology
Types of Patterns
Deduction and Induction
Initial Pattern Identification
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Pattern Finalization
Identifying the Principal Case
Identifying Other Key Cases in the Pattern
Identifying Additional Related Cases
Identifying Investigative Leads
Clearing Cases
Conclusion
Summary Points
Exercises
Chapter 10: Identifying Meaningful and Useful Patterns
Persons Crime and Property Crime
Potential Responses to Patterns by Police
Persons Crime
Property Crime
Identifying Meaningful Patterns
Persons Crime Pattern Key Characteristics and Examples
Robbery Patterns
Sexual CrimeRelated Patterns
Property Crime Pattern Key Characteristics and Examples
Theft from Vehicle Patterns
Vehicle Theft Patterns
Residential Burglary Patterns
Commercial Burglary Patterns
Hot Product Patterns
Conclusion
Summary Points
Exercises
Chapter 11: Describing and Disseminating Known Patterns
Describing Known Patterns
Modus Operandi Summary
Suspect and Vehicle Descriptions
Time Series Analysis
Exact Time
Exact Day of Week
Exact Time of Day and Day of Week
Exact Date: Intervals Between Events
Weighted Time Span Analysis
Spatial Analysis of Patterns
Pattern Bulletins
Summary Points
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Exercises
Part IV: Strategic Crime Analysis
Chapter 12: Analyzing Problems, Process and Statistics
Methodology: SARA Process
Scanning and Identifying a Problem
Analysis
Research Related to the Problem
Local Context of the Problem: Agency and Community
Developing and Testing Hypotheses
Response: Role of Analysis
Assessment
Basic Statistics Used in Crime Analysis
Frequency
Cross-Tabulation
Percent
Cross-Tabulation Percent
Percentile
Rate
Mean and Standard Deviation
Conclusion
Summary Points
Exercises
Chapter 13: Analyzing Problems, Application of Techniques, Part I
What Is the Nature of the Problem?
How Frequently Is the Problem Occurring?
Frequency and Percent
Rate
Mean and Standard Deviation
Has the Problem Increased or Decreased?
By Year
By Month or Quarter
By Week
Percent Change
Anticipatory Benefit
When Is the Problem Happening?
Seasonality
Time of Day and Day of Week
Summary Points
Exercises
Chapter 14: Analyzing Problems, Application of Techniques, Part II
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Where Is the Problem Occurring?
Identifying and Analyzing Problem Locations
Identifying Problem Areas
Manual Method
Graduated-Color Mapping
Ellipses
Density Mapping
Summary of Problem Area Identification Methods
Who Are the Victims and Does Repeat Victimization Exist?
Who Are the Offenders and Does Repeat Offending Exist?
Why Is the Problem Occurring?
Summary Points
Exercises
Chapter 15: Strategic Crime Analysis Results and Dissemination
Choosing Analysis Information to Disseminate
Initial Analysis Results
Problem Analysis Results
Strategic Crime Analysis Products
Types of Products
Using Email for Dissemination
Guidelines for Product Contents
Guidelines for Table and Chart Contents
Guidelines for Map Contents
Practical Examples
Summary Points
Exercises
Part V: Administrative Crime Analysis
Chapter 16: Administrative Crime Analysis: Crime Analysis for Accountability
Crime Reduction Accountability
Crime Reduction Goal Development
Crime Analysis for Weekly Action-Oriented Accountability Meetings
Crime Analysis for Monthly Evaluation-Oriented Accountability Meetings
Crime and Disorder Monthly Trend Charts
Problem Comparison Chart
Crime Pattern Trend Map
Crime Analysis for Assessment of Agency Goals
Performance Indicator (Output) Products
Success Indicator (Outcome) Products
Crime and Disorder Long-Term Trend Charts
Crime Trend Comparison Charts
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Yearly Comparison Maps
Summary Points
Exercises
Glossary
References
Index
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Preface
Crime analysis is a field of study and practice in criminal justice that uses systematic research methods and
data, supports the mission of police agencies, and provides information to a range of audiences. Crime
mapping is a subset of crime analysis that focuses on understanding the geographic nature of crime and other
activity. Crime analysis is a relatively new topic in criminal justice education, and this book is one of the first
to bring crime analysis and crime mapping to an undergraduate audience. A class in crime analysis provides
students with opportunities to apply theory, research methods, and statistics learned in other courses, as well
as presents information on a viable career path for criminal justice majors.
My purpose in this book is to provide an introduction to crime analysis with crime mapping through
discussion of the concepts, theories, practices, data, analysis techniques, and the role of crime analysis in
policing associated with this field of study. My purpose is not to cover current general or specific crime
analysis software products or technology. This is because the rate of change of software products and
technology is high, even though the foundations and fundamentals of crime analysis practice have remained
the same over time.
In this fourth edition, I have updated and added to the content, so the book reflects current crime analysis
practice in the United States and internationally. New to this edition are perspectives from crime analysts
from countries outside the United States, from North America, Europe, and South America. These
international crime analysts provide insight into crime analysis practices as they are conducted across the
world. This book will not serve all purposes for the growing field of undergraduate education in crime
analysis, but it is necessary for classes in which an overview of the field and fundamental techniques are
taught. The books website [http://www.sagepub.com/bobasantos4e] provides students with a plethora of
practical examples contributed by working crime analysts, as well as opportunities to conduct crime analyses
themselves through a variety of exercises.
The book is divided into five parts. Part I covers the foundations of crime analysis, including key definitions, a
description of the crime analysis profession and its future, theoretical foundations of crime analysis, and the
role of crime analysis in evidence-based policing strategies. Part II addresses the data and processes used in
crime analysis, geographic data and crime mapping techniques, and the purpose of crime analysis products.
Part III covers the methods and techniques of tactical crime analysis. Part IV looks at the methods and
techniques of strategic crime analysis. Part V includes a chapter on crime analysis for crime reduction
accountabilityan important topic within administrative crime analysis.
The chapters in Part I lay the foundation for the rest of the book. Chapter 1 presents definitions of crime
analysis and discusses the history and future of crime analysis and crime mapping; it also includes information
on crime analysis career opportunities. In 2014, the International Association of Crime Analysts (IACA)
developed a standardized definition of crime analysis as well as its types, so those are new to this edition.
Chapter 2 provides an overview of the criminological theories that help to guide the practice of crime analysis.
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http://www.sagepub.com/bobasantos4e
The illustration in Chapter 3 of the policing context in which crime analysis is conducted and the discussion
of the role of crime analysis in effective policing strategies has been updated with current research in this
edition.
The four chapters that make up Part II are devoted to the topics of the data and processes used in crime
analysis, geographic data and crime mapping techniques, and a typology for crime analysis results. Chapter 4
discusses the crime analysis process and the different types of crime analysis (which were standardized by
IACA in 2014). Chapter 5 provides a review of key terms, a discussion of the kinds of data commonly used
and databases commonly accessed in crime analysis (e.g., crime, arrests, calls for service, traffic crashes, and
primary data), information on what analysts must consider when using different kinds of data for analysis, and
a brief overview of some of the hardware and software commonly used in crime analysis. Chapter 6 covers, in
more detail, geographic data, types of geographic features, geocoding, descriptive crime mapping methods,
and density mapping. Chapter 7 outlines a typology that categorizes crime analysis results by type of problem
examined, purpose of the analysis, and type of audience for which the analysis results are produced.
The chapters in Part III describe the data, methodologies, techniques, and products of tactical crime analysis.
Chapter 8 contains details of data and analysis of repeat incidents as well as data collected specifically for
tactical crime analysis and pattern identification. Chapter 9 covers the methodologies analysts employ in
identifying and finalizing patterns. Chapter 10 discusses how police respond to patterns and provides current
examples of commonly identified patterns of persons and property crime. Chapter 11 highlights specific
analytic, temporal, and spatial techniques that analysts use to identify and understand crime patterns. The
chapter closes with guidelines for creating pattern bulletins and a bulletin template example.
The chapters in Part IV concentrate on the techniques that analysts use in analyzing long-term crime and
disorder problems and provide case examples of how the techniques have been used in practice. Chapter 12 is
an overview of the problem-solving process and covers the key statistics used in strategic crime analysis.
Chapters 13 and 14 illustrate the strategic analysis of problems by demonstrating various techniques that
answer key analysis questions. Chapter 15 discusses the types of strategic crime analysis products and provides
guidelines for the substantive and formative development of such products.
Finally, Part V has been significantly changed in this edition. It contains one new chapter that covers one
aspect of administrative crime analysis: crime analysis for crime reduction accountability. Chapter 16 focuses
on the foundation of and products that support a police departments accountability structure, which ensures
that crime reduction activities are taking place and are effective.
By no means does this book cover all facets of crime analysis; however, it does lay a solid foundation for
students understanding of the conceptual nature and practice of crime analysis that assists police in preventing
and reducing crime and disorder. It provides an in-depth description of this emerging field and guidelines for
the practice of crime analysis that are based on research, practice, and recent innovations, as well as previously
available and new information. It also provides opportunities for students to explore possible future careers
that support and enhance the effectiveness of modern policing.
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Student Study Site
This free student study site provides additional support to students using Crime Analysis With Crime Mapping,
4th Edition. Practical crime analysis products, exercises, suggested web resources, and SAGE journal articles
with discussion questions are included on this site to provide students with additional information and
support and to get students into original research. Visit the study site at
http://www.sagepub.com/bobasantos4e.
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http://www.sagepub.com/bobasantos4e
Instructor Teaching Site
This set of instructors resources provides a number of helpful teaching aids for professors to use Crime
Analysis With Crime Mapping, 4th Edition. Included on this site are PowerPoint slides, chapter outlines, test
questions and answers, a sample syllabus, and suggested web resources for each part of the text.
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Acknowledgments
I would like to thank all the reviewers who have helped me make improvements in this fourth edition. Thank
you to SAGE reviewers Dr. Stephanie J. Bennett, University of Portsmouth; Don Gardiner, Governors State
University; Charles J. Kocher, Cumberland County College, New Jersey; and Jonathan Allen Kringen,
University of New Haven. I would also like to show appreciation to the following police agencies and their
crime analysts who contributed products and examples used in this edition and/or in the books resource
materials. They include the following:
Detective Dan Benz, Seattle (Washington) Police Department
Mark Bridge, Fredrick (Maryland) Police Department
Rachel Carson, Inspired Acts, Ltd., United Kingdom
Michelle Chitolie, Port St. Lucie (Florida) Police Department
Dawn Clausius, Olathe (Kansas) Police Department
Prof. Dr. Joo Apolinrio da Silva, Presidente da Agncia Brasileira de Anlise Criminal
Cheryl Davis, Port St. Lucie (Florida) Police Department
Chisen Goto, Royal Canadian Mounted Police
Kendahl Hearn, Salisbury (Maryland) Police Department
Katrine Holt, Oslo (Norway) Police District
Brandon Inscore, Greensboro (North Carolina) Police Department
Ericka Jackson, Gainesville (Florida) Police Department
Carola Jersonsky, Metropolitan Police of Buenos Aires (Argentina)
Jessica LaBlanc, Fairfax County (Virginia) Police Department
April Lee, Fort Pierce (Florida) Police Department
Brian McGrew, Adventos
Mattis Michaelsen, Oslo (Norway) Police District
Tamara Otley, Fullerton, California, Police Department
Daniel Polans, Milwaukee (Wisconsin) Police Department
Karin Schmerler, Chula Vista (California) Police Department
Alex Schneider, Arlington (Texas) Police Department
Tyr Steffensen, Oslo (Norway) Police Department
Dr. Shefali Tripathi, Gainesville (Florida) Police Department
Julie Wartell, on behalf of San Diego (California) District Attorneys office
Michelle Wentz, Port St. Lucie (Florida) Police Department
Damien Williams, Rockhill (South Carolina) Police Department
Alisha Wilson, Roanoke (Virginia) Police Department
Alyson Yaraskovitch, Ottawa (Ontario) Police Service
I would like to extend my appreciation to members of the SAGE publishing team for their support and
assistanceJerry Westby for his faith in my first edition and encouragement for the next three editions, Amy
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Harris, Libby Larson, Jessica Miller, and Laura Kirkhuff.
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About the Author
Rachel Boba Santos
is a professor at Radford University in the Department of Criminal Justice. She works with police
departments around the world assisting them in improving their crime reduction efforts, data and crime
analysis, accountability, and community partnerships. Her research focuses on environmental
criminology, the effectiveness of crime reduction efforts by police, police accountability, and crime
analysis.
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Part I Foundations of Crime Analysis
Part I contains three chapters that provide a practical and theoretical foundation for the field of crime analysis.
Chapter 1 defines crime analysis as well as crime mapping and geographic information systems (GIS), describes
the history of the crime analysis profession, and ends with specifics about crime analysis as a career track.
Chapter 2 outlines the theoretical concepts that are most relevant for crime analysis by focusing on
understanding the opportunities for crime in immediate crime settings. Chapter 3 provides the policing
context in which crime analysis is conducted by reviewing the research on effective strategies of policing for
preventing and controlling crime, discussing the role of crime analysis in each strategy, and providing a
stratified structure for implementing crime analysis, problem solving, and accountability in police
departments.
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Chapter 1 Crime Analysis and the Profession
This chapter serves as a foundation for the discipline of crime analysis by providing definitions of crime
analysis and crime mapping, along with an overview of the crime analysis profession in the United States. The
overview includes the professions history, the current research findings about crime analysis, descriptions of
potential career paths for crime analysts, and ways to develop and improve a crime analysis unit. Finally, the
chapter ends with crime analysis profiles and discussion of the future of crime analysis.
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Definition of Crime Analysis
In 2011, the International Association of Crime Analysts (IACA) created a series of committees under the
umbrella of the Standards, Methods, and Technology Committee (SMT) for the purpose of defining
analytical methodologies, technologies, and core concepts relevant to the profession of crime analysis (The
SMT Mission, n.d.). This quote comes from the mission statement as written in the initial Standards,
Methods, and Technology Strategic Plan completed April 2011. The purpose of the Standards Committee is
to produce definitions that are used as the standard for the crime analysis profession. The methodology for
formulating these standards includes the 1) creation of a draft paper through in-depth meetings and
discussions of subject matter experts; 2) review and feedback by the IACA Executive Board; 3) review and
feedback from an independent editor with knowledge of crime analysis; and 4) review and feedback by IACA
members facilitated through the IACA website. In 2014, I was a member of the subject matter expert
committee that produced the white paper titled Definition and Types of Crime Analysis (IACA, 2014b).
Because of this development, the definitions of crime analysis and the types of crime analysis have been
updated in Chapter 1 and Chapter 4 of this edition to the new IACA definitions. The following discussion
has been adapted from the white paper (IACA, 2014b).
27
Foundation of the Definition
It is important to understand that the field of crime analysis includes much more than the analysis of crime.
That is, crime analysis examines much more than crime, including many types of information that are relevant
to police, such as disorder, calls for service, quality-of-life issues, traffic crashes, critical incidents, and, less
often, fire and emergency medical incidents. Because the term crime analysis has been used historically, IACA
has kept it as the standard, but it is important to understand that its processes and types of crime analysis
apply to more than just crime.
The discussion of crime analysis throughout this book refers to crime analysts as serving police agencies. This
term encompasses agencies with general law enforcement authority (i.e., with patrol, investigative, emergency
response, prevention, and community service functions). These types of agencies include municipal and local
police departments, metropolitan police departments, county police departments, county sheriff offices, state
police agencies, and university police agencies within the United States. It also includes national, provincial,
and regional police agencies with local-level police responsibilities internationally. While state and federal
investigative agencies, intelligence agencies, researchers, statistical analysis centers, and corporate security
departments might use aspects of crime analysis, they will not systematically use the majority of types and
techniques of crime analysis discussed in this book.
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Crime Analysis Definition
According to the IACA (2014b, p. 2), crime analysis is defined as the following:
A profession and process in which a set of quantitative and qualitative techniques are used to analyze data
valuable to police agencies and their communities. It includes the analysis of crime and criminals, crime
victims, disorder, quality of life issues, traffic issues, and internal police operations, and its results support
criminal investigation and prosecution, patrol activities, crime prevention and reduction strategies,
problem solving, and the evaluation of police efforts.
In addition, the IACA (2014b) defines crime analysis as all types of analysis performed within a police agency,
with the exception of evidence analysis (e.g., DNA, stolen property), human resourcesrelated administrative
analysis (e.g., budgeting, overtime, sick and vacation leave, salary), and analysis of supplies and equipment.
Importantly, the IACA does not distinguish between crime analysis and crime intelligence analysis performed
within a police organization. The term intelligence is one that is used in a variety of contexts in the crime
analysis profession with some inconsistency. The term is used to describe information about an enemy,
typically gathered covertly, resulting in more specific terms such as military intelligence, criminal intelligence,
and intelligence analysis. More recently, the term has been used to describe information of operational value
for example, as a product rather than a source of analysis. Thus, the IACA adopts a definition of crime
intelligence analysis (discussed in Chapter 4) to reflect a focus on criminal offenders as opposed to crime
information in general. While certain analysts may specialize in particular functions, the IACA defines crime
intelligence analysis as a set of techniques performed by crime analysts.
Crime analysis is not haphazard or anecdotal; rather, it is based in theory and involves the application of social
science data collection procedures, analytical methods, and statistical techniques. More specifically, crime
analysis employs both qualitative and quantitative data and methods. Crime analysts use qualitative data and
methods when they examine nonnumerical data for the purpose of discovering underlying causes of crime.
The qualitative methods specific to crime analysis include field research (such as observing characteristics of
locations and talking to individuals with specific knowledge about a particular type of crime) and content
analysis (such as examining police report narratives). Crime analysts use quantitative data and methods when
they conduct statistical analyses of numerical or categorical data. Although much of the work in crime analysis
is quantitative, crime analysts primarily use fundamental statistical methods, such as frequencies, percentages,
means, and rates.
The central focus of crime analysis is the study of crime (e.g., rape, robbery, and burglary) and disorder
problems (e.g., noise complaints, burglar alarms, and suspicious activity) and information related to the nature
of incidents, offenders, and victims or targets (i.e., inanimate objects, such as buildings or property) of these
problems. Crime analysts also study other police-related operational issues, such as staffing needs and areas of
police service. Although many different characteristics of crime and disorder are relevant in crime analysis,
three key types of information that crime analysts use are sociodemographic, spatial, and temporal.
29
Sociodemographic information consists of the personal characteristics of individuals and groups, such as sex,
race, income, age, and education. On an individual level, crime analysts use sociodemographic information to
search for and identify crime suspects and victims. On a broader level, they use such information to determine
the characteristics of groups and how these group characteristics are related to crime. For example, analysts
may use sociodemographic information to answer the question Is there a white, male suspect, 30 to 35 years
of age, with brown hair and brown eyes to link to a particular robbery? or Can demographic characteristics
explain why the people in one group are victimized more often than people in another group in a particular
area?
The spatial nature of crime, disorder, and other police-related issues is central to understanding the nature of
a problem. Advanced computer technology and the availability of electronic data have facilitated a large role
for spatial analysis in crime analysis. Visual displays of crime and disorder locations (maps) and their
relationship to other events and geographic features are essential to understanding the nature of crime and
disorder. In addition, results from criminological research within an area called crime and place (Eck &
Weisburd, 1995) encourage crime analysts to focus on geographic patterns of crime by examining situations in
which victims and offenders come together in time and space.
The temporal nature of crime, disorder, and other police-related issues is a major component of crime
analysis. Crime analysts conduct several levels of temporal analysis, including examination of long-term trends
of crime and disorder over several years, by season, and by day of week and time of day. This book will take a
close look at specific analysis techniques used to examine the temporal nature of crime at each of these levels.
The primary purpose of crime analysis is to support redundant the operations of a police department. These
functions include criminal investigation, apprehension, and prosecution; patrol activities; crime prevention and
reduction strategies; problem solving; and the evaluation and accountability of police efforts. Without police,
crime analysis would not exist. Although general, the definition encompasses a wide range of activities in
which crime analysts assist police. A publication by the Bureau o
